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The book that teaches you how to teach yourself
By Robby Lou
Click one of the topics below to see its content
BE: AM, IS, ARE
| (1) | A word is a collection of letters that carries a meaning. Examples: high, tall, house, room, books |
| (2) | A phrase is one or a group of words that carries meaning but is not a sentence. Therefore, a word is always a phrase, but a phrase is not necessarily a word. Examples: a high building, in the room, the big house, a pen, shoes, John |
| (3) |
A sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone.
Examples:
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English sentences must have a main verb. Without a main verb, an English sentence is incorrect, as in the following examples:
| (1) | |
| (2) | |
| (3) |
Why is the sentence above incorrect? It is incorrect because it lacks a main verb. The sentences should be written as follows:
| (1) | He is smart. |
| (2) | He is a student. |
| (3) | He is from Indonesia. |
| (1) | I am smart. |
| (2) | He is smart |
| (3) | She is smart |
| (4) | It is smart. |
| (5) | You are smart. |
| (6) | We are smart. |
| (7) | They are smart. |
| (a) | 'I' is used with the helping verb 'am'. |
| (b) | 'We', 'you', and 'they' are used with the helping verb 'are'. |
| (c) | 'He', 'she', and 'it' are used with the helping verb 'is'. |
There are four types of sentences that use the helping verb 'be' without a main verb.
| (a) |
SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE |
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The sentences above use 'am,' 'is,' and 'are' (helping/auxiliary verbs) because 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'we,' 'you,' and 'they' are pronouns, while 'busy,' 'smart,' 'beautiful,' 'right,' 'happy,' 'wrong,' and 'naughty' are adjectives."
| (b) |
SUBJECT + BE + NOUN / NOUN PHRASE |
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The above sentences use the helping verbs 'am, is, are' because I, he, she, it, we, you and they are pronouns, and a teacher, a lawyer, a student, a book, doctors, a sportsman dan farmers are noun phrase.
| (c) | SUBJECT + BE + PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE / ADVERB OF PLACE Examples: |
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The sentences above use 'am,' 'is,' and 'are' (helping verbs) because 'I,' 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'we,' 'you,' and 'they' are pronouns. Prepositional phrases such as 'from Sumatra,' 'on the phone,' 'in the living room,' 'in the drawer,' 'at home,' and 'at work' begin with the prepositions 'from,' 'in,' or 'at,' whereas 'here' functions as an adverb."
Some examples of adverbs of place are: there, here, upstairs, downstairs, everywhere, and abroad."
| (d) | SUBJECT + BE + PRONOUN Examples: |
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A noun is word that names a person, a thing, a place, or an idea.
Examples:
| (a) | coffee, girl, book, table, water |
| (b) | Mr Johnson, Miss Lucy |
| (c) | freedom, justice, philosophy, democracy |
| (d) | Jakarta, Tokyo, hospital, factory, supermarket |
An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun.
Examples:
beautiful, interesting, smart, busy, good, sophisticated, confused, surprising
A preposition is a word like on, in, at, and about which is used with a noun or pronoun and is usually placed before it.
Examples:
in the drawer, at home, at work, on the table, about women
| (1) | A noun phrase is a phrase that functions as a noun. Examples: a book, hot coffee, cold water, a beautiful girl |
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| (2) | A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition. Examples: at work, at home, about the book, in the kitchen |
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| (3) | An adjective phrase is a phrase that functions as an adjective. Examples: ten years old, blue with cold, bright green, way too high, better than her, so absent-minded |
To form a question or an interrogative sentence, we simply move the helping verb 'be' (am, is, are) to the front of the subject. To form a negative sentence, we only need to add 'not' after the helping verb 'be' (am, is, are).
Examples:
Statements:
| I am He/ She/ It is You/ We/ They are |
} | smart. |
Negative Statements:
| I am | } | not smart. |
| He/ She/ It is | ||
| You/ We/ They are |
Questions:
| Am I | } | smart? |
| Is he/ she/ it | ||
| Are you/ we/ they |
Short Answers:
| Yes, | { | I am. |
| he/ she/ it is. | ||
| you/ we/ they are. |
| No, | { | I am not. |
| he/ she/ it is not. | ||
| you/ we/ they are not. |
Look at the following contractions:
| I | + am | → I'm | | I'm at home |
| She | + is | → She's | | She's at home |
| He | + is | → He's | | He's at home |
| It | + is | → It's | | It's at home |
| You | + are | → You're | | You're at home |
| We | + are | → We're | | We're at home |
| They | + are | → They're | | They're at home |
| is | + not | → isn't | | She isn't at home |
| are | + not | → aren't | | They aren't at home |
| (1) | 'pronoun + be' (in positive ssentences) is not used at the end of a sentence. Examples: |
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| (2) | In non-standard English, am not, is not, and are not are usually contracted to ain't. |
THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE,
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
After we have learned about English sentences that do not have a main verb, let us now study English sentences that do have a main verb. In sentences with a main verb, we simply use the main verb without using an auxiliary verb.
Examples:
I work in the morning.
Because the word 'work' is the main verb, we do not use the auxiliary verb 'am' to form the sentence. If we used 'am,' the sentence would become 'I am work in the morning.' In this sentence, there are two verbs: the auxiliary verb 'am' and the main verb 'work,' which is not allowed. Before that, of course, we need to know what a verb is. A verb is a word that indicates an action, an event, or a state. Examples of verbs include: dance, look, play, read, study, and write.
How do we form the simple present tense?
the formula:
| subject (I/ We/ You/ They) subject (He/ She /It) |
+ infinitive + infinitive |
or + s |
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | work. |
| He/ She /It | works. |
Negative Statements:
| I/ You/ We /They | do not work. |
| He/ She/ It | does not work. |
Questions:
| Do | I/ you/ we/ they work? |
| Does | he/ she/ it work? |
Short Answers:
|
Yes, |
{ |
I/ you/ we / they |
do. |
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No, |
{ |
I/ you/ we/ they |
do not / don't. |
'do not' can be abbreviated as 'don't', and 'does not' can be abbreviated as 'doesn't'.
Verbs with the subjects he, she, or it in the sentences above are added with the letter s. Why is that? This is a rule agreed upon by English speakers. So, how do we learn it? We simply memorize it. Everyone learning English remembers that for the subjects he, she, or it, we must add s to the verb (for the rules of adding -s, see Appendix 1).
We use do not to form a negative sentence if the subject is I, we, you, or they, and does not if the subject is he, she, or it.
A sentence in the simple present tense expresses actions that are done daily, habits, regularly performed activities, or facts.
When do we use the sentences above, including the sentences we learned in Unit 1, which are sentences that do not have a main verb?
| ‘the simple present tense’ is used to show: | ||
|---|---|---|
| (1) | daily activities: | |
| (a) He works at Hotel Indonesia. (b) She takes care of patients. (c) They go to the office by bus. |
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| Explanation: | ||
| This sentence expresses daily activities that we do and will continue to do because we do not yet know when we will stop doing them. | ||
| (2) | habits: | |
| (a) He smokes. (b) He drinks coffee. (c) He sneezes almost every hour. |
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| Explanation: | ||
| These sentences express a habit . | ||
| (3) | regular activities: | |
| (a) She plays the piano at four o’clock. (b) He visits his mother once a month. |
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| Explanation: | ||
| These sentences express an activity that is performed regularly. | ||
| (4) | facts or general truths: | |
| (a) She is beautiful. (b) The sun sets in the west. |
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| Explanation: | ||
| These sentences express general truths. | ||
So, if we want to express all four of these things in English, we must use sentences in the simple present tense.
If someone asks, "What do you do?" we would answer with "I am a student" because the question is asking about what we do on a daily basis. Since I study every day, my answer is "I am a student because I study regularly." If you are a worker, your answer would be "I am an employee." Why? Because I work every day.
Therefore, we need to understand the concept of sentences in the simple present tense and when to use them. Otherwise, we will always make mistakes when speaking English. This is a very basic concept that we must master before moving on to the next unit.
'Adverbs' are words that describe verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and entire sentences.
Here, we will only discuss adverbs of frequency, which are adverbs that indicate how often an activity is performed or a situation occurs.
Examples of these adverbs of frequency are:
| (1) | always | means all of the time |
100% |
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| (2) | usually | means most of the time |
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| (3) | often | means much of the time |
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50% |
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| (4) | sometimes | means some of the time |
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| (5) | seldom | means almost never |
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| (6) | never | means not at any time |
0% |
The percentage on the right above indicates how often the activity is carried out or how often something or a situation occurs.
Pay attention to the position of adverbs of frequency in a sentence:
(a) Adverbs of frequency are placed after the auxiliary verb 'be'.
| He + | is + | { | always usually often sometimes seldom never |
} | early |
(b) Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb and after the subject.
| He + | { | always usually often sometimes seldom never |
} | comes early |
An "adverb of frequency" is placed after the auxiliary verb is, whereas in sentences that use a main verb, the adverb of frequency is placed before the main verb and immediately after the subject.
PRONOUNS:
SUBJECT, POSSESSIVE, OBJECT, REFLEXIVE
A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun or a noun phrase.
| (1) | ‘I’ is the first-person singular pronoun that refers to the person who is speaking or writing. |
| (2) | ‘He’ is a third-person singular pronoun used to refer to a man, boy, or male animal. ‘She’ is also a third-person singular pronoun, used to refer to a woman, girl, or female animal. ‘It’ is another third-person singular pronoun, used to refer to a thing, an animal, or something whose gender is unknown. ‘He,’ ‘she,’ and ‘it’ refer to the person, animal, or thing being talked about.” |
| (3) | ‘We’ is a first-person plural pronoun. It refers to the speaker and one or more other people. |
| (4) | ‘You’ is a second-person singular pronoun. It refers to the person or people being spoken to.” |
| (5) | ‘You’ is a second-person plural pronoun used to refer to the people being spoken to. |
| (6) | ‘They’ is a third-person plural pronoun. It refers to the people, animals, or things being talked about.” |
'A subject pronoun' is a pronoun used as the subject of a sentence. The subject pronouns are I, you, we, he, she, it, and they.
| (a) | My friend and I go to school by bus. We go to school by bus. |
| (b) | You are late. |
| (c) | John studies English every day. He is diligent. |
| (d) | Mary is beautiful. She is kind too. |
| (e) | The food is exspensive. It is delicious. |
| (f ) | I have two sisters. They are here. |
| (1) |
'An object pronoun' is a pronoun that functions as the object of a verb or a preposition. The object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. Remember, an object pronoun should not be used as the subject of a sentence. |
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| (2) | 'An object pronoun' is used after a preposition. Some common prepositions that are used with object pronouns include between, among, of, to, with, for, from, at, on, behind, in front of, beside, toward(s), and opposite.”
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Examples:
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A possessive adjective is used before a noun. The possessive adjectives are my, your, his, her, its, our, and their. A possessive pronoun, on the other hand, is used alone — without a noun.
| POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES |
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS |
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|---|---|---|---|
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| (a) | This is my book. | → | This is mine. |
| (b) | This is your book. | → | This is yours. |
| (c) | This is her book. | → | This is hers. |
| (d) | This is his book. | → | This is his. |
| (e) | This is our book. | → | This is ours. |
| (f) | This is their book. | → | This is theirs. |
| (g) | This is its food. | → | no possessive pronoun |
There is no possessive pronoun for it.
A possessive adjective is also used with parts of the body when it is already clear whose body parts they are, or when the parts have been identified. Do not use the in this case.
Examples:
| (a) | Show me your leg. |
| (b) | Her hair hangs down her shoulders. |
a/some + noun phrase + of + possessive pronoun
“We can use the above phrase with the possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs.”
Examples:
| (a) | a teacher of mine |
| (b) | a friend of theirs |
| (c) | a holiday of his |
| (d) | an idea of Jenny's |
| (e) | a project of yours |
| (f) | some students of ours |
A possessive noun can also be used after of.
Examples: a car of Yatno's, a house of Caroline's
To show that something belongs to somebody else or a living creature, we can use an apostrophe (').
| possessive nouns | | | possessive adjectives | | | of phrase |
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| the boy's father | | | his father | | | the father of the boy |
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| the dog's tail | | | its tail | | | the tail of the dog |
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| Catherine's car | | | her car | | | a car of Catherine's |
When the owner of an object is a living creature, we form the possessive by adding (’s) to the noun. This form is called apostrophe s (’s) in English.
When a person’s name already ends with the letter s, we form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe (’) instead of ’s.
Examples:
the boys' books, the cats' legs
We use an of-phrase, which begins with of, to show that something belongs to something else.
| We say: | We do not say: |
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| the pages of the book | |
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| the windows of the house | |
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| the smell of the food | |
Some exceptions to the use of noun + apostrophe s (’s)
| (1) | With nouns referring to time | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | With nouns referring to natural phenomena | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | With nouns referring to countries and cities | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | With nouns that represent a group of people working for the same company | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | For names ending in s, x, or z (e.g., James, Charles, Felix, and Aziz), possession may be shown with either apostrophe s (’s) or an apostrophe (’) alone.” | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (6) | For names ending in -s, such as Jesus or Moses, possession is shown by adding only an apostrophe (’) after the name.” | ||||||||
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| Examples: Jesus' disciples, Moses' paintings |
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| (7) | We can use of and (’s) together with words such as a, some, that, and this. | ||||||||
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| Examples: that car of John's, a friend of Jim's, some books of Mary's |
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| (1) | A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that refers back to the subject of the sentence. It usually takes the object position and often serves as the object of a verb or a preposition. The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| Some verbs that are commonly used with reflexive pronouns include: ask, believe, blame, buy, cut, enjoy, feel sorry for, help, hurt, introduce, kill, pinch, pray for, see, take care of, talk to, teach, tell, work |
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| A reflexive pronoun can also be used for emphasis, to show that the subject performs the action themselves rather than someone else. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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In the sentence above, the reflexive pronoun myself emphasizes that the subject I performs the action, not someone else.”
| (2) | (ALL) BY ONESELF [(all) by myself, (all) by yourself, (all) by yourselves, (all) by himself, (all) by herself, (all) by ourselves, (all) by itself, (all) by themselves, ] |
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Look at the following sentences:
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In the phrase ‘by myself,’ the reflexive pronoun indicates that the subject is alone or without anyone else.”
| Subject pronouns | Object pronouns | Possessive adjective | Possessive pronouns | Reflexive pronouns |
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| I | me | my car | mine | myself |
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| he | him | his car | his | himself |
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| she | her | her car | hers | herself |
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| it | it | its tail | - | itself |
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| we | us | our car | ours | ourselves |
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| you (singular) |
you | your car | yours | yourself |
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| you (plural) |
you | your car | yours | yourselves |
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| they | them | their car | theirs | themselves |
| (1) | 'have' means own or possess something, a quality, or a relationship | ||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | 'have' means that something possesses something else. | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | 'hsave' means suffer from or get an illness. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | 'have' is usually used with a noun. |
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| Examples: Some nouns that are usually used together with have are: an accident, an affair, a bath, a break, a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a dream, a fear, a good time, a holiday, a meeting, a party, a rest, a shower, a sleep, a talk, a trip, a walk, a wash, breakfast, dinner, lunch. |
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| (a) | 'to have a swim', to have a look, to have a chat, to have a dream, and to have a rest are the same as to swim, to look, to chat, to dream, and to rest. The use of to swim, to look, to chat, to dream, and to rest are more formal. |
| (b) | We can also say to take a rest/a bath/a shower (in American English). |
| (5) | 'have' means eat or drink. | ||||||
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Examples:
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Look at the positive statements, questions, negative statements and their answers:
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They have a good memory. |
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| He/ She/ It has a good air conditioner. |
Negative statements:
| American |
| I/ We/ You/ They do not / don't have a good memory. |
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| He/ She/ It does not / doesn't have a good air conditioner. |
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British |
| I/ We/ You/ They have not / haven't a good memory. |
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| He/ She/ It has not / hasn't a good air conditioner. |
Questions:
| American |
| Do I/ we/ you/ they have a good memory? |
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| Does he/ she/ it have a good air conditioner? |
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British |
| Have I/ we/ you/ they a good memory? |
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| Has he/ she/ it/ a good air conditioner? |
Short Answers:
| American |
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| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they do. |
| he/ she/ it does. | ||
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| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they do not / don't. |
| he/ she/ it does not / doesn't. | ||
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British |
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| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they have. |
| he/ she/ it has. | ||
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| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they have not / haven't. |
| he/ she/ it has not / hasn't. | ||
| (1) | Questions beginning with have and has are common in British English, but nowadays do and does are also used. | ||||
| (2) | Negative statements using have not / haven’t and has not / hasn’t are British English forms. | ||||
| (3) | The negative statement of I have a bookis I have no book or I haven't got a book. Do not say |
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(4)
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If a sentence expresses a habit, kwe can use questions beginning with do and does both in British English and American English.
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| (5) | I have, we have, you have, they have, he has, she has, and it has are usually contracted to I’ve, we’ve, you’ve, they’ve, he’s, she’s, and it’s when have functions as the main verb. This usage is also common in British English. |
“Have got” is the informal form of have. It is used in British English to show possession.
| (a) | They've got a new car. |
| (b) | They haven't got a television. |
| (c) | They've got either black or brown eyes. |
| (d) | I haven't got time to review it. |
| (e) | Have you got any good friends? |
| (1) | “I have got, we have got, you have got, they have got, he has got, she has got, and it has got” are each contracted to “I’ve got, we’ve got, you’ve got, they’ve got, he’s got, she’s got, and it’s got.” | ||||
| (2) | “Have got” can be used in positive statements in American English, but it is more common in British English. Examples:
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| (1) | “Have to” and “have got to” are used to show that you need, must, or are obliged or forced to do something. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | “Have to” and “have got to” are used to express necessity or obligation, not suggestion or advice. | ||||||
Examples:
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| (1) | “I have got to, we have got to, you have got to, they have got to, he has got to, she has got to, and it has got to” are each contracted to “I’ve got to, we’ve got to, you’ve got to, they’ve got to, he’s got to, she’s got to, and it’s got to.” | ||||||||
| (2) | To make questions and negative statements in the simple past tense, we use the auxiliary verb did, and we use had to in positive statements. Examples:
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| (3) | Questions with 'have got to' are less common and sound informal in American English. Americans usually prefer have to instead of have got to. | ||||||||
| (4) | We can also say Have we to go now? (formal) but it is very old-fashioned and rarely used in modern English. |
THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE,
THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE WITH
NON-ACTION VERBS
The present continuous tense indicates an action or event that is happening at the moment of speaking — that is, an action or event you can see or imagine happening right now.
This kind of sentence is formed by combining a helping (auxiliary) verb with a main verb that has been changed in form.
In the sentence “He is working,” the helping (auxiliary) verb is is, whereas working is the main verb that has been changed in form. The verb form working is called the present participle in English.
Look at the positive statements, questions, and negative statements, including their answers.
the formula:
subject + be (am/is/are) + verb + ing
Statements:
| I am | } | working. |
| You/ We/ They are | ||
| He/She/ It is |
Negative Statements:
| I am not | } | working. |
| You/ We/ They are not | ||
| He/She/ It is not |
Questions:
| Am I | } | working? |
| Are you/ we/ they | ||
| Is he/ she/ it |
Short Answers:
| Yes, | { | I am. |
| you/ we/ they are. | ||
| he/ she/ it is. | ||
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| No, | { | I am not. |
| you/ we/ they are not / aren’t. | ||
| he/ she/ it is not / isn’t. | ||
The concept of the present continuous tense is that an activity is happening at the present time. There are several time indicators that show this, such as now, at the moment, right now, and at present.
When do we use the present continuous tense?
| (1) | We use the present continuous tense when we want to say that an action, activity, or event is happening right in front of our eyes — something we can see directly. Look around you, and you can describe what you see using the present continuous tense. |
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| (2) | Besides describing what we can see in front of our eyes, we can also use the present continuous tense to talk about what we imagine is happening at the moment of speaking. For example, when you are asked what your friend is doing right now, even though he or she is not around, you can answer by imagining what he or she is doing at that moment. |
A key characteristic of the present continuous tense is that it describes an action that is ongoing — it has a certain duration but has not yet been completed at the moment of speaking.
| (3) | The present continuous tense can also be used to express an action that is going to happen in the future. To express this idea, an adverbial of time is usually included. Examples:
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The present continuous tense can be used with always to show that an activity happens repeatedly and is therefore annoying or disturbing.
Examples:
| (a) | He is always talking about that. |
| (b) | She is always asking me questions. |
The simple present tense is also used with non-action verbs such as like, have, know, see, and understand. These verbs describe a state or condition rather than an action.
Some non-action verbs are:
| (1) | Verbs relating to perception such as: feel, hear, notice, see, smell, sound, and taste |
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| (2) | Verbs relating to mental health such as: agree, believe, doubt, guess, hesitate, imagine, know, mean, need, prefer, realise/realize, recognise/recognize, remember, suppose, think, trust, understand, want, and wish |
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| (3) | verbs relating to emotions such as: admire, appreciate, care, dislike, envy, expect, fear, hate, hope, like, love, mind, regret, and trust |
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| (4) | verbs relating to possession: possess, have, own, and belong to |
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| (5) | verbs relating to a state: appear, be, contain, cost, depend, equal, exclude, exist, hold, include, indicate, look, need, owe, require, resemble, seem, tend, and weigh |
The verbs listed above are non-action verbs. Therefore, they are not normally used in the continuous tense. However, some of these verbs can be used in the continuous tense when they function as action verbs.
Examples:
| the simple present tense | → | the present continuous tense | |
|---|---|---|---|
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| (a) | He has a son. | → | He is having a serious operation at the moment. |
| (b) | She looks happy. | → | She is looking at the book. |
| (c) | He is careful. | → | He is being careful. |
What is the difference between He is careful and He is being careful?
‘He is careful’ indicates that he is careful every day or regularly, whereas ‘He is being careful’ means that he is careful only at the moment of speaking. Being careful is not his usual characteristic. However, we need to remember that not all verbs can be used in the present continuous tense.
ADJECTIVE AND NOUNS AS MODIFIERS,
ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS
We have learned the definition of an adjective. In this unit, we will discuss how adjectives are used in phrases. In a noun phrase, we usually include a noun.
Examples:
an expensive watch, a brilliant student, a clear picture
In the above phrases, adjectives are words such as expensive, brilliant, and clear. These words are placed before nouns (watch, student, and picture), and this position is called the attributive position.
Is it always this way? Usually, yes — but there is also another position for adjectives in a phrase. When an adjective comes after a verb, it is in the predicative position.
Examples:
The fish is alive.
The adjective alive is never placed before a noun.
Look at the position of the adjectives in the phrases above. They are placed before the nouns they modify, which may be different from your native language.
What is the difference between chocolate milk and milk chocolate? At first glance, we might think they are the same. This confusion may be influenced by our native language, which works differently from English.
Chocolate milk is meant to be drunk, whereas milk chocolate is meant to be eaten, because chocolate milk is milk, and milk chocolate is chocolate.
In English, the last noun in a noun phrase is the main noun (the “real” noun). In the phrase milk chocolate, the word milk modifies chocolate, so milk functions like an adjective, and chocolate is the main noun.
Conclusion: A noun can be used to modify another noun. In other words, a noun can function as an adjective.
Following are a few examples of noun phrases:
a hand phone, a law school, a milk bottle, a wall clock
| a hand phone | : | a wireless phone that you can carry with you |
| a law school | : | a school where you can study law |
| a milk bottle | : | a bottle used for milk |
| a wall clock | : | a clock that you hang on the wall |
Because phrases like bookstore are used very often, they have become single words and are now written without a space.
Other examples:
classmate, drugstore, headmaster, keyboard, schoolmate, wastepaper
an adjective can also functions as a noun:
| (1) |
An adjective as a noun indicates a group of people and is always considered as a plural noun.: The above phrases mean those who are bad, blind, British, dead, deaf, good, handicapped, old, poor, rich, sick, strong, unemployed, weak, young |
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| (2) |
An adjective is used to indicate a group of things with a particular quality mentioned. This adjective is considered as singular: the absurd, the mystical, the beautiful, the unreal, the ridiculous. The above phrases mean ‘that which is absurd, mystical, beautiful, unreal, ridiculous’ |
| (1) | Notice that the above phrases use the article the. | ||||||
| (2) | The ‘article’ the can be omitted if there is a parallel phrase, or if it is preceeded by a a preposition or worlds like both. Examples:
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| (3) |
Some phrases are considered as singular or plural nouns. |
THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE
The difference between English and some other languages is that English has tenses, while some other languages do not.
What is a tense?
A tense is a form of a verb that changes to show the time when an action happens. For example, the verb go changes form (go – goes – going – went – gone), and these forms represent different tenses.
Some languages do not have tenses, which means the verb does not change its form to indicate time.
In Unit 7, we will talk about the simple past tense — a verb form that tells us about an activity, event, or state that happened in the past.
To show that something happened in the past, we use a different form of the verb in English.
| (1) | Sentences using the helping (auxiliary) verbs am, is, and are |
| (a) | I am smart. | → I was smart. |
| (b) | He is happy. | → He was happy. |
| (c) | She is pretty. | → She was pretty. |
| (d) | It is wild. | → It was wild. |
| (e) | We are fine. | → We were fine. |
| (f) | You are kind. | → You were kind. |
| (g) | They are tired. | → They were tired. |
Notice the sentences above. The helping (auxiliary) verbs am and is change to was, whereas the helping (auxiliary) verb are changes to were. You need to memorize this.
How do we form a sentence using a helping /auxiliary verb?
subject + was/were + adjective/noun phrase/prepositional phrase
Refer to Unit 1 for the types of sentences that use the helping (auxiliary) verb be (am, is, are).
| (2) |
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How do we make a sentence with a main verb?
subject + verb (the past tense)
I + went to the school.
Examples of irregular verbs:
| the present tense | the past tense |
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| begin | → began |
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| come | → came |
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| eat | → ate |
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| give | → gave |
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| hurt | → hurt |
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| sit | → sat |
The change of the present tense of a verb to the past tense is irregular. So we have to memorize it. Without memorizing it, we will never be able to use English correctly.
Besides irregular verbs, there are also regular verbs. You do not need to memorize them.
Examples of regular verbs:
| the present tense | the past tense |
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| answer | → answered |
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| learn | → learned |
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| play | → played |
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| repeat | → repeated |
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| talk | → talked |
What conclusion can we draw from the sentences above? To form the past tense of a verb, we add -ed to the end of the verb in its present tense.
The above sentences are used to talk about events that happened in the past. The past tense can also be combined with sentences in the simple present tense — that is, the sentences we learned in Unit 1 (the simple present tense with the helping/auxiliary verb be) and Unit 2 (the simple present tense with the main verb).
An examples of a simple story:
(1) I know Peter. (2) We were in the same class 10 years ago. (3) He was very kind to me. (4) I still remember his kindness now. (5) I met him last week when I went to Sarinah. (6) He was with his family. (7) He has two children, a boy and a girl.
In the above story, we use I know Peter because this is a general truth.
The second sentence, We were in the same class ten years ago, talks about an event that happened in the past, so the helping/auxiliary verb is were.
The third sentence, He was very kind to me, talks about an event in the past, so we use was, not is.
The fourth sentence, I still remember his kindness now, talks about a general truth at present.
The fifth sentence, I met him last week when I went to Sarinah.
In the sixth sentence, He was with his family, we use the past tense of is, which is was.
In the seventh sentence, He has two children, a boy and a girl, we use the present tense has because this expresses a general truth at present.
That’s why mastery of verb tenses is very important.
Look at the positive statements, questions, and negative statements — including their short answers — in sentences using the simple present tense with the helping/auxiliary verb “be.”
| I was You/ We/ They were He/ She/ It was |
} | happy. |
Negative Statements:
| I was not / wasn't | } | happy. |
| You/ We/ They were not / weren't | ||
| He/ She/ It was not / wasn't |
Questions:
| Was I | } | happy? |
| Were You/ We/ They | ||
| Was he/ she/ it |
Short Answers:
| Yes, | { | I was . |
| you/ we/ they were. | ||
| he/ she/ it was. |
| No, | { | I was not. |
| you/ we/ they were not / weren't. | ||
| he/ she/ it was not / wasn't. |
To make questions from the above sentences, we simply move the helping/auxiliary verb to the front of the subject.
Positive statements, negative statements, and questions — including their short answers — in sentences using the simple past tense with the main verb.
Statements:
| I saw You/ We/ They saw He/ She/ It saw |
} | him. |
Negative Statements:
| I did not / didn't see | } | him. |
| You/ We/ They did not / didn't see | ||
| He/ She/ It did not / didn't see |
Questions:
| Did I see | } | him? |
| Did You/ We/ They see | ||
| Did he/ she/ it see |
Short Answers:
| Yes, | { | I did. |
| you/ we/ they did. | ||
| he/ she/ it did. |
| No, | { | I did not / didn't. |
| you/ we/ they did not / didn't. | ||
| he/ she/ it did not / didn't. |
To make questions, we use the helping/auxiliary verb did, which comes from do or does. Look at the questions and negative statements — in these, the main verbs change to the present (base) form.
Look at the following contractions:
was not → wasn’t , were not → weren’t dan did not → didn’t
A verb is a word or phrase that expresses an action, an event, or a state.
Examples:
work, write, drink, see and is
In English, verbs change according to the time of the action or the number of the subject.
Examples:
work becomes works, working, worked.
Verbs also change in the following ways:
| (1) | Add -s to a verb when it is used with the subjects he, she, or it in the simple present tense. For example: She / He / It works. |
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| (2) | Add -ing to a verb when it is used in a continuous tense, or when it functions as an adjective or a gerund (a verb functioning as a noun). Examples:
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| (3) | Add -ed to a verb when it is used in a passive sentence or as an adjective, unless the verb is irregular. Examples:
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To better understand the uses of verbs, study the topics of tenses, passive sentences, and participles that function as adjectives.
The following is a list of irregular verbs whose forms change irregularly from the present tense to the past tense and the past participle.
| the present tense (infinitive) | the past tense | the past participle | |
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| arise | arose | arisen | |
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| awake | awoke | awoken | |
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| be | was, were | been | |
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| bear | bore | borne, born | |
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| beat | beat | beaten | |
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| become | became | become | |
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| befall | befell | befallen | |
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| begin | began | begun | |
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| bend | bent | bent | |
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| bet | bet, betted | bet, betted | |
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| bid | bid, bade | bit, bidden | |
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| bind | bound | bound | |
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| bite | bit | bitten | |
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| bleed | bled | bled | |
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| blow | blew | blown | |
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| break | broke | broken | |
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| breed | bred | bred | |
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| bring | brought | brought | |
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| broadcast | broadcast | broadcast | |
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| build | built | built | |
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| burn | burnt, burned | burnt, burned | |
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| burst | burst | burst | |
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| buy | bought | bought | |
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| catch | caught | caught | |
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| choose | chose | choosen | |
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| cling | clung | clung | |
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| come | came | come | |
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| cost | cost | cost | |
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| creep | crept | crept | |
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| cut | cut | cut | |
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| deal | dealt | dealt | |
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| dig | dug | dug | |
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| dive | dived, dove | dived | |
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| do | did | done | |
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| draw | drew | drawn | |
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| dream | dreamt, dreamed | dreamt, dreamed | |
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| drink | drank | drunk | |
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| drive | drove | driven | |
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| eat | ate | eaten | |
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| fall | fell | fallen | |
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| feel | felt | felt | |
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| fight | fought | fought | |
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| find | found | found | |
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| flee | fled | fled | |
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| fly | flew | flown | |
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| forbid | forbade | forbidden | |
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| forecast | forecast, forecasted | forecast, forecasted | |
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| foresee | foresaw | foreseen | |
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| foretell | foretold | foretold | |
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| forget | forgot | forgotten | |
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| forgive | forgave | forgiven | |
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| freeze | froze | frozen | |
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| get | got | got, gotten | |
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| give | gave | given | |
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| go | went | gone | |
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| grow | grew | grown | |
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| hang | hung | hung | |
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| hang | hanged | hanged | |
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| have | had | had | |
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| hear | heard | heard | |
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| hide | hid | hidden | |
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| hit | hit | hit | |
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| hold | held | held | |
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| hurt | hurt | hurt | |
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| keep | kept | kept | |
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| kneel | knelt, kneeled | knelt, kneeled | |
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| knit | knitted, knit | knitted, knit | |
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| know | knew | known | |
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| lay | laid | laid | |
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| lead | led | led | |
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| lean | leant, leaned | leant, leaned | |
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| leap | leapt, leaped | leapt, leaped | |
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| learn | learnt, learned | learnt, learned | |
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| leave | left | left | |
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| lend | lent | lent | |
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| let | let | let | |
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| lie | lay | lain | |
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| light | lit, lighted | lit, lighted | |
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| lose | lost | lost | |
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| make | made | made | |
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| mean | meant | meant | |
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| meet | met | met | |
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| mishear | mishear | mishear | |
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| misread | misread | misread | |
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| misspell | misspelled, misspelt | misspelled, misspelt | |
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| mistake | mistook | mistaken | |
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| misunderstand | misunderstood | misunderstood | |
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| mow | mowed | mown, mowed | |
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| overcome | overcame | overcome | |
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| overhear | overheard | overheard | |
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| oversleep | overslept | overslept | |
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| pay | paid | paid | |
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| plead | pleaded, pled | pleaded, pled | |
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| prove | proved | proved, proven | |
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| put | put | put | |
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| quit | quit, quitted | quit, quitted | |
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| read | read | read | |
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| rebuild | rebuilt | rebuilt | |
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| redo | redid | redone | |
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| rehear | reheard | reheard | |
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| remake | remade | remade | |
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| repay | repaid | repaid | |
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| rerun | reran | rerun | |
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| reset | reset | reset | |
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| retell | retold | retold | |
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| rewind | rewound | rewound | |
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| rewrite | rewrote | rewritten | |
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| ride | rode | ridden | |
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| ring | rang | rung | |
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| rise | rose | risen | |
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| run | ran | run | |
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| saw | sawed | sawn, sawed | |
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| say | said | said | |
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| see | saw | seen | |
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| seek | sought | sought | |
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| sell | sold | sold | |
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| send | sent | sent | |
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| set | set | set | |
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| sew | sewed | sewn, sewed | |
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| shake | shook | shaken | |
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| shine | shone, shined | shone, shined | |
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| shit | shitted, shat | shitted, shat | |
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| shoe | shod | shod | |
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| shoot | shot | shot | |
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| show | showed | shown, showed | |
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| shrink | shrank, shrunk | shrunk | |
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| shut | shut | shut | |
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| sing | sang | sung | |
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| sink | sank | sunk | |
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| sit | sat | sat | |
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| sleep | slept | slept | |
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| slide | slid | slid | |
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| smell | smelt, smelled | smelt, smelled | |
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| smite | smote | smitten | |
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| sow | sowed | sown, sowed | |
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| speak | spoke | spoken | |
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| speed | sped, speeded | sped, speeded | |
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| spend | spent | spent | |
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| spill | spilt, spilled | spilt, spilled | |
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| spin | spun, span | spun | |
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| spit | spat, spit | spat, spit | |
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| spilt | split | split | |
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| spoil | spoilt, spoiled | spoilt, spoiled | |
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| spread | spread | spread | |
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| spring | sprang | sprung | |
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| stand | stood | stood | |
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| steal | stole | stolen | |
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| stick | stuck | stuck | |
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| sting | stung | stung | |
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| stink | stank, stunk | stunk | |
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| strike | struck | struck | |
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| string | strung | strung | |
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| strive | strove, strived | striven, strived | |
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| swear | swore | sworn | |
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| sweep | swept | swept | |
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| swim | swam | swum | |
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| swing | swung | swung | |
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| take | took | taken | |
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| teach | taught | taught | |
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| tear | tore | torn | |
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| tell | told | told | |
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| think | thought | thought | |
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| throw | threw | thrown | |
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| thrust | thrust | thrust | |
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| understand | understood | understood | |
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| undertake | undertook | undertaken | |
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| upset | upset | upset | |
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| wake | woke, waked | woken, waked | |
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| wear | wore | worn | |
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| weave | wove, weaved | woven, weaved | |
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| weep | wept | wept | |
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| win | won | won | |
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| wind | wound | wound | |
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| withdraw | withdrew | withdrawn | |
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| wring | wrung | wrung | |
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| write | wrote | written | |
In American English we change some regular verbs by adding the suffix -ed to the verbs, whereas in British English we add the suffix -t to the verbs.
For examples:
| American | burn → burned, dream → dreamed, lean → leaned, leap → leaped, learn → learned, smell → smelled, spell → spelled, spill → spilled |
| British | burn → burnt, dream → dreamt, lean → leant, leap → leapt, learn → learnt, smell → smelt, spell → spelt, spill → spilt |
We will talke about the change of the form of the verb above in topics regarding tenses. The change of the form of the verb above is called tense, e.i., a form of a verb in a sentence that shows the past, present, or future time of the action or state. We need to memorize these changes. The change of the form of the verb above is irregular, thus we name the verb an irregular verb.
In order to form the past tense and the past participle, we add the suffix -ed to the present tense of a verb / an infinitive if the verb is a regular verb .
For example:
| the present tense (infinitive) | the past tense | the past participle | |
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| agree | agreed | agreed | |
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| clean | cleaned | cleaned | |
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| dance | danced | danced | |
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| decide | decided | decided | |
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| jump | jumped | jumped | |
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| talk | talked | talked | |
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| work | worked | worked | |
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(1) |
Participles Related to Feelings or Emotions The news disappointed the participants. The participants were disappointed The news was disappointing. ‘Disappointed,’ as a past participle, has a passive meaning, whereas the present participle ‘disappointing’ has an active meaning. Some Past Participles and Present Participles That Function as Adjectives
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| (2) | The past participle (verb + -ed) and the present participle (verb + -ing) are also used to modify nouns. The past participle (verb + -ed) has a passive meaning, whereas the present participle has an active meaning. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (3) |
‘the present participle’ (verb + ing as an adjective) The present participle can also specifically be used as an adjective. This kind of present participle is usually written as a headword in dictionaries. Some examples of ‘the present participle’ as an adjective
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(‘Verb + -ing’ as a Noun that Modifies Another Noun)
A gerund is a verb + -ing form that functions as a noun. A gerund can also be used to modify another noun. Because the form of a gerund is the same as that of a present participle, we need to look up the word if we are in doubt.
Examples of Gerunds Modifying Nouns
| (a) | a swimming pool |
| (b) | a dancing hall |
| (c) | a waiting room |
| (d) | a sleeping pill |
| (e) | a working day |
How do we know whether or not a verb + -ing form is a gerund or a present participle?
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(a) |
A singing teacher — “singing” is a noun (gerund) because it is written that way in the dictionary. singing n [u] (where n means noun and u means uncountable). We can also say “a singing boy.” In this case, “singing” is a present participle because a singing boy is a boy who is singing. |
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(b) |
‘Verb + -ing’ (Present Participles) That Function as Adjectives:
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The present perfect tense is a verb tense that shows:
| (1) | An action, event, or state that began in the past and continues to the present time. The continuation may occur continuously or with pauses. |
| (2) | The result of the action or event is relevant or visible in the present. |
| (3) | The action or event may be repeated in the present or future. |
The form of the present perfect tense:
the formula:
subject + has/have + the past participle
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They have known her for three years. | |
| He/ She/ It has run for five minutes. |
Negative Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They have not/haven’t known her for three years. | |
| He/ She/ It has not/hasn’t run for five minutes. |
Questions:
| Have I/ we/ you/ they known her for three years? | |
| Has he/ she/ it run for five minutes? |
Short Answers:
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Yes, |
{ |
I/ we/ you/ they have. |
| he/ she/ it has. | ||
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No, |
{ |
I/ we/ you/ they have not / haven’t. |
| he/ she/ it has not / hasn’t. | ||
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(1) |
An action, event, or state that began in the past and continues to the present time. It may continue without stopping or with pauses or breaks. Examples:
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(2) |
The result of the action or event can be seen at the present time. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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(3) |
the action or event can be repeated at the present time or in the future. For example: |
The activity of writing books can still be repeated in the present or in the future. This means I have written two books and still have the opportunity to write another one before the year is over.
If a sentence uses the auxiliary verb be (am, is, are), it changes to been (the past participle of be) in the present perfect tense.
Examples:
| the simple present tense | → | the present perfect tense |
| She is here. | → | She has been here for five minutes. |
| (Dia berada di sini.) | (Dia sudah berada di sini selama lima menit.) |
Expressions of time (words or phrases) that are used with the present perfect tense.
| (1) | during, in, over | ||||||
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| (2) | since, ago, for | ||||||
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In sentences that use the present perfect tense, for four years means the last four years, whereas sentences that use the simple past tense ‘I worked for four years’, four years means any four years in the past, not the last four years.
| (3) | this - this morning, this week, this month, this year | ||||||
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| (4) | so far, up to now, up to the present time, until now, recently, lately, in recent years, to this day | ||||||||||||||||
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| (5) | twice, always, often, sometimes, et cetera | ||||||||
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| (6) | just, already and yet | ||||||||||
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| (1) | ‘already’ can also be used in questions to show that you are surprised because something happens or is done earlier than you expected. We can say: Have you had dinner already? It is only six o’clock. |
| (2) | In American English, already, just, and yet can also be used in the simple past tense. We can say: | ||||||||||
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| (7) | still (used in negative sentences with the present perfect tense), finally | ||||
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| (8) | ever, never (ever) | ||||||
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| (9) | before, today, at last, all my life, all day, how long...? | ||||||||||
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| (10) | It’s the first/second/third time... | ||||||
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| (11) | subject + be + the best / the most + noun phrase... | ||||||
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| 1 |
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The result of the action in the simple past tense — “I closed the door” — may no longer be valid because someone could have opened the door again.
The result of the action in the present perfect tense — “I have closed the door” — is still valid at the present time; the door remains closed.
| . |
| (a) | The above sentence is used before the homework deadline. If the homework has not been submitted, it is still possible to submit it. However, if the deadline has passed, the question will be in the simple past tense: “Did you submit your homework?” |
| (b) | We ask questions using the present perfect tense when it is still possible to do something. |
| 3 |
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If there are no time indicators, we can use both the present perfect tense and the simple past tense (especially in American English).
QUESTION WORDS:
WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY, WHOSE
In order to be able to speak English, we need to study words that are used to ask questions where the answer is not “yes” or “no,” but in the form of information. We are going to learn the following five question words: who, what, where, when, and why. “Who” is used to ask about a person, “what” is used to ask about something, “where” is used to ask about a place, “when” is used to ask about time, and “why” is used to ask about a reason.
| (1) | ‘Question Words’ That Are Used with a Main Verb |
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Look at the following sentences:
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| (1) | To form questions, we have to use a question word — who, what, where, when, or why. We place who, what, where, when, and why in front of the auxiliary verb. In the example above, the auxiliary verb is “does.” | ||||
| (2) | If what is being asked about is the object of a verb, we use “whom” to ask the question. “Whom” is more formal than “who.” | ||||
| (3) | The question word “what” can be used to ask about adjectives that describe something. Examples:
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| (2) | ‘Question Words’ That Are Used with the Auxiliary Verb ‘Be’ Without a Main Verb |
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Look at the following sentences:
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Additional examples:
| Who was that man? | → My father. |
| What are you? | → A teacher. |
| When is he here? | → Today. |
| Why are you here? | → Because I want to see you. |
| Statement: | |||||
| (1) | Ahung | studies at home. | |||
| Wh-question : | |||||
| Who | studies at home? | ||||
To ask about the subject of a sentence, we replace Ahung with who.
| Statement: | |||||
| (2) | John and Mary | work in the same office. | |||
| Wh-question : | |||||
| Who | works in the same office? | ||||
To ask about the subject, we replace John and Mary with who.
| Statement: | |||||
| (3) | The shoes | are expensive. | |||
| Wh-question : | |||||
| What | is expensive? | ||||
To ask about the subject of the sentence, we replace The shoes with What.
| (1) | Although sentences (2) and (3) above have plural subjects — “John and Mary” and “the shoes” — the questions are given in the singular form. So work becomes works, and the auxiliary verb are becomes is. |
| (2) | The question word used to ask about the subject is “who.” We cannot use “whom” to ask about the subject because “whom” is used to ask about the object. |
Additional examples:
| Who woke up at six yesterday? | → | Diana | (did). |
| What makes you happy? | → | The money | (does). |
| Who takes care of patients in the hospital? | → | Doctors and nurses | (do). |
“Whose” is a question word used to ask about possession.
| (1) | The question word “whose” is used to ask about the object in a sentence that contains a main verb. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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We form a question by placing “whose” at the beginning of a sentence. “Whose” is used with a noun and is placed before it (e.g., Whose money did she take?). “Whose” can also stand alone if the thing being referred to is already clear (e.g., Whose did she take?). |
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| (2) | The question word “whose” is used to ask about the object in a sentence that contains the auxiliary verb “be.” | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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We form a question by placing “whose” at the beginning of a sentence. “Whose” is used with a noun and is placed before it (e.g., Whose book is this?). “Whose” can also stand alone if the thing is already known or clear (e.g., Whose is this?). Additional Examples:
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| (3) | To ask about the subject of the above sentence, we replace “Catherine’s friends” with “whose friends.” | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
To ask about the subject of the above sentence, we replace “Catherine’s friends” with “whose friends.” |
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| (4) | The question word “whose” is used to ask about the subject in a sentence with the auxiliary verb “be.” | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
To ask about the subject of the above sentence, we replace “Her friends” with “whose friends.” |
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“Besides the question words ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ ‘why,’ and ‘whose,’ there are also the question words ‘which’ and ‘how,’ which we will learn about.”
“Which” is used with nouns—both singular and plural—and is placed before the noun.
Examples of “which” asking about the object of a verb:
| (a) | Which book/s do you want? |
| (b) | Which language/s do you study? |
Examples of “which” asking about the subject of a verb:
| (a) | Which way is quicker? |
| (b) | Which student wants to see you? |
| (1) |
For example:
The answers to the above questions usually use the article “the” and the demonstratives “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those.”
We do not say |
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| (2) |
“Which” is used to give alternatives to choose from.
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| (1) | “How” is used before an adjective or an adverb to ask about the amount, degree, and so on (etc.) of something, or about somebody’s age. | ||||||||||||||
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Examples of “how” used with adjectives:
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Examples of how used with adverbs:
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| (2) | “How” is also used alone, without an adjective or an adverb. | ||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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The answers to the above questions use:
| (1) |
(1) a few sentences to describe an event, as in (a) and (b); and |
| (2) | the combination of with + noun, by + verb-ing, or by + noun, as in the following examples: (c) with a key, (d) by practising / practicing every day, (e) by airmail, and (f) by telephone. |
THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE,
THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE AND
THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE FOR FUTURE
Sentences in the simple future tense are sentences in which the verb expresses an action or event that will happen in the future.
To form this sentence, we use the modal auxiliary verb will. We place will after the subject and before the main verb in its infinitive form, as in He will come on time. Please note that the verb must be in the infinitive form; we do not add -s to the verb (come → comes). The verb form does not change in the simple future tense.
Examples:
the formula
subject + will/shall + infinitive
| He/ She/ It/ You/ They will | } | come on time. |
| I/ We shall / will |
| He/ She/ It/ You/ They will not | } | come on time. |
| I/ We shall/ will not |
Questions:
| Will he/ she/ it/ you/ they | } | come on time? |
| Will/ Shall I/ we |
Short Answers:
| Yes, | { | he/ she/ it/ you/ they will. |
| I/we shall/ will. | ||
| No, | { | he/ she/ it/ you/ they will not. |
| I/we shall not/ will not. |
| (1) | In British English, the subjects I and we can use the modal auxiliary verb shall, whereas in American English, will is used instead. |
| (2) | Questions beginning with shall I or shall we are used to make offers or suggestions to do something. |
| (3) | ‘Will not’ is contracted to won’t, and ‘shall not’ is contracted to shan’t. |
| (4) | ‘Will’ is also used after expressions such as I think, as in I think I will come. |
There are other ways to express what will happen in the future, namely by using be + going to instead of will. So, the above sentence becomes:
the formula:
subject + be + going to + infinitive
| I am | } | going to come on time. |
| You/ We/ They are | ||
| He/ She/ It is |
| I am not | } | going to come on time. |
| We/ You/ They are not | ||
| He/ She/ It is not |
| Am I | } | going to come on time? |
| Are we/ you/ they | ||
| Is he/ she/ it |
| Yes, | { | I am. |
| you/ we/ they are. | ||
| he/ she/ it is. | ||
| No, | { | I am not. |
| you/ we/ they are not / aren’t. | ||
| he/ she/ it is not / isn’t. |
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(1) |
Sometimes, there is no difference in the use of will and be going to. Will is more commonly used than be going to. | ||||||||||
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(2) |
Look at the following constructions:
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What is the difference between sentences that use will and be going to?
Sentences in the simple future tense that use will and be going to describe an action or event that is predicted to happen in the future. However, if we want to describe an action that has been arranged to happen in the future, we use only be + going to.
Examples:
| Catherine | : | Is there any milk in the fridge? |
| Nathania | : | No, there isn’t. |
| Catherine | : | I will go and get some. (the event had not been planned, or it happened spontaneously because it was found out that the milk is not in stock..) |
Then Catherine, on her way to the store, met her sister, Caroline.
| Catherine | : | I am going to buy some milk. (This event has been planned, so use be + going to.) Can I get you something? |
| Caroline | : | No, nothing. Thanks. |
Sentences in the present continuous tense can also be used to describe an event or situation that will happen in the future. Such sentences usually include an adverbial of time.
Examples:
| (a) | She is coming tomorrow. |
| (b) | I am having a party next week. |
| (c) | The shoes are going on sale next month. |
| (d) | What are you doing this evening? |
| (e) | I am not working tomorrow. |
Sentences in the present continuous tense are used to describe an action, event, or situation that has been prearranged, as in sentences using be going to. If the action, event, or situation is not planned, use will.
Sentences in the simple present tense are used to describe an action or event that will happen in the future. Such sentences usually include an adverbial of time.
Examples:
| (a) | I arrive in Bandung next week. |
| (b) | The plane leaves this evening. |
| (c) | Tomorrow is Sunday. |
| (d) | The train leaves Gambir at 14.30 and arrives in Bandung at 16.15. |
Sentences in the simple present tense are used with expressions related to departures or arrivals (things that have been scheduled), such as arrive, depart, leave, start, begin, end, finish, open, close, and be.
Most of us cannot use the articles a, an, and the correctly. The article a is called an indefinite article, which is used when we mention something for the first time.
What does this mean? It means we use a when talking about something that has not been identified or mentioned before.
For example:
| I bought a book. |
When our friend said the above sentence, did we know which book he was talking about? He only said that he bought a book, and we did not know which book he bought. So we use the article ‘a’.
If we already knew which book he had bought, we would say, “I bought the book.”
For example:
| The book cost two dollars. |
In the above sentence, do we know what costs two dollars? Of course we do — it’s a book that costs two dollars.
Which book costs two dollars? There are many books that cost two dollars, but the one being talked about is the book that my friend bought.
Therefore, when our friend said, “The book cost two dollars,” everyone involved in the conversation knew that the topic was the book that my friend bought.
The 'article’ the is called the definite article. What does it means? It means that when we talk about something, the thing we talk about has already been identified or is known by us.
The ‘article’ a is also used to mean 'one'.
Examples:
a book, a pen, a car
The ‘article’ an is used when a noun begins with a vowel sound.
Examples:
an umbrella, an accident, an hour, an egg
In the case of the word hour, although hour begins with the letter h, it has a vowel sound because the h is silent. Therefore, hour is considered a word that begins with a vowel sound.
Moreover, it is very difficult to pronounce a umbrella, a accident , or a egg smoothly. If we pronounce a umbrella quickly, it naturally sounds like an umbrella.
| (1) | ‘The’ is pronounced /ði/ when it is followed by a word that begins with a vowel sound, even if that word begins with a vowel letter. Examples: the hour /ði'aUJ(r)/, the MP /ði%em 'pi;/, the honour/honor /ði'QnJ(r)/, the honest boy /ði 'QnIst bOI/ |
| (2) | If the is followed by a consonant sound, even if the word begins with a vowel letter, the is pronounced /ðÉ™/. Examples: the university /ði %ju;nI'v3;sJti/, the useful thing /DJ 'ju;sfl TIN/, the European country /DJ%jUJrJ'pi;Jn 'kVntri/ |
| (1) | The article ‘a’ is used before a singular countable noun. | ||||
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Examples:
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If a noun is uncountable, we do not use the article ‘a’ before it.
Instead, we use ‘some’ or no article at all.
Examples:
| (a) | I need (some) money. |
| (b) | I need (some) advice. |
| (2) | The article ‘the’ can be used with uncountable nouns as the definite article — that is, an article used to refer to something that is already known to the speakers or has been identified earlier. | ||||
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| Examples: the water, the bread, the furniture, the experience, the car
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Examples:
| (a) | The fish lives in water. |
| ‘The fish’ refers to fish as a group or as a class in general. | |
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| (b) | A fish lives in water. |
| ‘A fish’ means one fish, or any fish, representing the group of fish in general. | |
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| (c) | Fishes live in water. |
| ‘Fishes’ (without an article) refers to all kinds or species of fish in general. | |
Articles are not used only to refer to things in general.
Pay attention to the use of the article ‘a’ as an indefinite article — an article used to refer to something that has not been identified earlier — and the article ‘the’ as the definite article — the article used to refer to something that is already known or has been identified earlier.
| (1) | ‘the’ as the definite article indentifies things around us that have been known to the speakers or identified such as: the atmosphere, the ground, the weather. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘The’ as the definite article identifies things around us that are already known to the speakers or have been identified, such as the atmosphere, the ground, and the weather. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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‘The boy’ in the above sentence has been clearly identified. The phrases that identify it are who was late, near the door, and coming late.
| (1) | ‘The’ is used before superlative adjectives. Examples: the latest news, the hottest day, the best teacher, the happiest man, the most wonderful girl, the most outstanding player, the most famous author |
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| (2) | ‘The’ is used before a family name in the plural form to refer to a family as a whole (a married couple or household). Examples: the Lous, the Jacksons, the Grahams |
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| (3) | ‘The’ is used with ordinal numbers. Examples: the first, the second, the third day, the tenth chapter, the fifth page But we say: page one, chapter two, book three, section four, room 503 |
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| (4) | ‘The’ is used with an adjective to refer to a particular group or class of people. Examples: the rich, the poor, the haves, the elderly, the unemployed, the homeless |
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| (5) | ‘The’ is used with the names of musical instruments when speaking in general. Examples: the piano, the cello, the guitar, the violin, the drum, the trumpet |
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| (6) | “‘The’ is used to refer to a whole class of things or people in general.” Examples: Who invented the telephone/the computer/the television/the camera? |
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| (7) | ‘The’ is used with nouns that show the degree of importance.” Examples: the main reason, the only thing, the chief problem, the principal argument |
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| (8) | ‘the’ is used to show a unit of measurement. Examples:
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| (9) | ‘The’ is used with an adjective to show a time sequence.” Examples: the last meeting, the next discussion, the following day, the coming Wednesday, the first interview, the third question |
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| (a) | Countries: |
| the Republic of Indonesia, the United States of America, the Kingdom of Thailand, the United Arab Republic, the United Kingdom, the Dominican Republic, the Netherlands |
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| (b) | Mountain ranges: |
| the Himalaya Mountains (the Himalayas), the Alps | |
| One mountain: | |
| Mount Everest, Mount Blanc, Mount Jaya Wijaya, Mount Merapi | |
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| (c) | Groups of Islands: |
| the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippines (the Philippine Islands) | |
| One island: | |
| Samosir Island, Bali Island, Java Island, Sumatra Island | |
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| (b) | Groups of lakes: |
| the Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes | |
| One lake: | |
| Lake Toba, Lake Genewa, Salt Lake | |
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| (e) | Deserts, Forests, Peninsulas |
| the Sahara Desert, the Black Forest, the Malay Peninsula | |
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| (f) | Straits, Gulfs (use ‘of phrase’): |
| the Gulf of Bengal, the Gulf of Mexico, the Strait of Bali | |
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| (g) | Oceans/Rivers: |
| the Pacific (Ocean), the Mississippi (River), the Atlantic (Ocean), the Musi River, the Kapuas River, the Amazon River | |
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| (h) | points of the globe: |
| the Equator, the South Pole, the North Pole | |
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| (i) | points of the compass in place names |
| the South East Asia, the Middle East | |
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| (j) | Names of hotels: |
| the Hilton Hotel, the Mandarin Oriental, the Grand Hyatt | |
| Names of buildings: | |
| the Empire State Building, the World Trade Center | |
| Names of towers: | |
| the Eifel Tower | |
| Names of museums: | |
| the Metropolitan Museum, the National Museum | |
| Names of tunnels: | |
| the Hudson Tunnel | |
| Names of bridges: | |
| the Golden Gate Bridge, the Ampera Bridge | |
| Names of libraries: | |
| the Library of Congress | |
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| (k) | Names of universities: |
| the University of Michigan, the University of Indonesia (because Michigan, Indonesia, are famous names of places) Columbia University, Trisakti University, Atma Jaya University (because Columbia, Trisakti, Atma Jaya are only ordinary names) |
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Some exceptions to the rule of not using the definite article ‘the’
| (a) | Names of countries: Algeria, Canada, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Sudan |
| (b) | Names of cities: Jakarta, Los Angeles, Boston, Bandung, Palembang, Surabaya, Denpasar |
| (c) | Names of continents Europe, Asia, America, Africa, South America, West Africa, Australia |
| (d) | Names of streets or gardens Palem Lestari Street, Fifth Avenue, Downing Street, Central Park, Kelapa Gading Boulevard |
| (e) | Names of companies: Mobile English, EPlus, Microsoft Corporation, Nokia, Singapore Airlines |
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES,
REQUEST SENTENCES
In conversation, we often ask somebody to do things for us.
Sentences that are used to ask somebody to do something for us are called imperative sentences.
How do we form imperative sentences?
Imperative sentences begin with a verb.
So, if we want to ask somebody to do something for us, we begin our sentence with a verb.
the formula:
verb (infinitive)
For example:
| (a) | Sit down. |
| (b) | Open your book. |
| (c) | Come here. |
| (1) | The verb used must be in teh infinitive form without to. |
| (2) | We can also say: Do sit down; Do come in; Do open your book. |
Problems arise when we ask somebody to be in a particular state. In this case, there is no action or main verb in the sentence. We need to go back to Unit 1, where we learned that if there is no main verb in a sentence, we need to use an auxiliary or helping verb such as am, is, or are — the infinitive form of which is be.
Examples:
| If we aks people to: | → | We say: | |
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| the formula: be + adjective be + noun phrase be + prepositional phrase be + pronoun |
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| (a) | be patient | → | Be patient. (be + adjective) |
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| (b) | be kind at home | → | Be good at home. (be + adjective) |
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| (c) | be well soon | → | Be well soon. (be + adjective) |
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| (d) | be kind to him. | → | Be kind to him. (be + adjective) |
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| (e) | be a good boy. | → | Be a good boy. (be + noun phrase) |
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| (f) | be a doctor. | → | Be a doctor. (be + noun phrase) |
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| (g) | be in Jakarta. | → | Be in Jakarta. (be + prepositional phrase) |
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| (h) | be yourself. | → | Be yourself. (be + pronoun) |
The above sentences do not have a main verb, so we have to use an auxiliary or helping verb — be. We have to use the infinitive form of be (am, is, are), which is be.
How do we form negative imperative sentences?
We form them by beginning the imperative sentence with “do not” or its contraction “don’t.”
Examples:
| (a) | Don’t stand up. |
| (b) | Don’t take a break. |
| (c) | Don’t worry. |
| (d) | Don’t panic. |
| (e) | Don’t be naughty. |
| (f) | Don’t say another word. |
In order to make an imperative sentence polite, we can add “please” at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
Examples:
| (a) | Please be silent. (Be silent, please.) |
| (b) | Please sit down. (Sit down, please.) |
| (c) | Please don’t do it. (Don’t do it, please.) |
| Positive Sentence: |
Please take a seat. | |
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| Polite Sentence: |
Would you | please take a seat. |
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| Negative Sentence: |
Please don’t leave. | |
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| Negative polite sentence: |
Would you | please not leave now. |
Request sentences are as follows:
| (a) | Would you join us. |
| (b) | Would you have lunch with us. |
We can also say:
| (c) | Will you help us. |
| (d) | Could you join us. |
| (e) | Won’t you be patient. |
The following sentence is an invitation and requires an answer such as yes or no:
Would you like to join us?
Besides the above sentence, we also have request sentences that include the speaker. We begin such request sentences with “Let us,” which is usually contracted to “Let’s.”
| Positive: | Let’s go home. |
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| Negative: | Let’s not go home. |
To form negative sentences, we place the negative word “not” after “let’s.”
We can also make request sentences using expressions that begin with “Why don’t you…”.
Examples:
| (a) | Why don’t you sit down. |
| (b) | Why don’t you come over. |
| (c) | Why don’t you go now. |
The above sentences do not need question marks because they are not real questions. They are request sentences. Therefore, we do not answer them with explanations beginning with because…. Instead, they are answered with the word okay when we agree and do what is requested, or with the word no when we refuse and do not do what is requested.
“Why don’t…” can be used to ask somebody to do something together.
This kind of sentence begins with:
Why don’t we + infinitive.
Examples:
| (a) | Why don’t we go out. |
| (b) | Why don’t we work together. |
| (c) | Why don’t we meet at 3.00 today. |
| (1) | Why don’t you... and Why don’t we... are usually used in conversation. | ||||||||
| (2) | Why don’t you... and Why don’t we... can be replaced by Why not + infinitive.... Examples:
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| (3) | We can use How about + verb + ing to make request sentences. Examples:
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| (4) | How about... can be followed by a noun. Examples:
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| (5) | To refuse or ask somebody to do something politely, we can use “will have to” or “will need to.” For example: I’m afraid you will have to / will need to fill in this form. |
Exclamatory sentences are sentences that express sudden emotions or strong feelings.
Examples:
| (a) | How delicious it is! |
| (b) | What a good job it is! |
| (c) | How fast he runs! |
| (d) | Good heavens! |
There are two ways to make exclamatory sentences. The first is to begin the sentence with “how,” and the second is to begin it with “what.”
the formula:
How + adjective/adverb + subject + verb!
Examples:
| (a) | How nice (the weather is here)! |
| (b) | How careful (you are)! |
| (c) | How fierce (the dog is)! |
| (d) | How beautifully (she behaves)! |
| (1) | The subject and verb in imperative sentences are optional. | ||||
| (2) | Sometimes, in exclamatory sentences, the subject and verb may switch places for poetic or stylistic effect. For example:
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| (3) | Exclamatory sentences must end with an exclamation mark (!). |
the formula:
What + noun phrase + subject + verb!
Examples:
| (a) | What a friendly lady (you are)! |
| (b) | What a handsome boy (he is)! |
| (c) | What beautiful hair (she has)! |
| (d) | What a good job (you have done)! |
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(1) |
Sometimes we use such and there to make exclamatory sentences.
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| (2) | Other words used to make exclamatory sentences are words or expressions expressing surprise, admiration and others. Examples: My goodness!, Oh My God!, (Good) Heavens!, Thank goodness!, Thank God!, Gee (whiz)!, Hurray!, You lucky boy!, Shame on you! |
What is a noun? A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Nouns in English are divided into two main categories.
| (1) | countable nouns |
| (2) | uncountable nouns |
Countable nouns are nouns that we can put a number before.
Examples:
two books, three pens, one magazine, four games
Noun such as: book, pen, magazine and game are countable nouns. If the noun is more than one, an s should be added to the end of it.
Examples:
book → books, pen → pens, magazine → magazines, game → games
There are irregular nouns, i.e., nouns that do not form their plural by adding -s or -es, as most nouns in English do. We have to memorize them, or look them up in a dictionary. On the other hand, singular nouns that form their plural by adding -s or -es are called regular nouns.
Some irregular nouns
| singular nouns | plural nouns | ||||
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| (1) | man | → | men | ||
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| (2) | policeman | → | policemen | ||
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| (3) | foot | → | feet | ||
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| (4) | tooth | → | teeth | ||
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| (5) | mouse | → | mice | ||
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| (6) | child | → | children | ||
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| (7) | sheep | → | sheep | ||
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| (8) | deer | → | deer | ||
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| (9) | datum | → | data | ||
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| (10) | criterion | → | criteria | ||
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| (11) | crisis | → | crises | ||
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| (12) | fish | → | fish/fishes | ||
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| (13) | series | → | series | ||
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| (14) | means | → | means | ||
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| (15) | – | → | people | ||
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| (16) | – | → | clothes | ||
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| (17) | – | → | trousers | ||
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| (18) | – | → | spectacles | ||
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| (19) | – | → | the police | ||
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| (20) | – | → | the government | ||
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| (21) | – | → | the staff | ||
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| (22) | – | → | the jury | ||
| (1) | Datum, criterion, and crisis are words of foreign origin. |
| (2) |
Some nouns exist only in the plural form, such as the examples above (people, the government, the staff). |
| (3) | There are also nouns that have the same singular and plural form, such as: deer, sheep, series, means, species, barracks, crossroads, and headquarters. |
| (4) |
The plural form of fish can be either fish or fishes, depending on the context. |
“Here are some quantity phrases used with countable nouns.”
one, every, each, five, both, a couple of, a few, several, many, too many,
a number of, some, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, most, all, not any, no,
one third of
Examples:
one player, every person, five pencils, both students, a couple of pillows,
a few tables, several grammar books, many chairs, too many calculators,
a number of clocks, some films, a lot of children, lots of men,
plenty of boys, most girls, all computers, not any/no speakers,
one third of the graduates
Uncountable nouns are nouns that we cannot put a number before.
Examples:
music, water, oil, bread, iron, rubbish, progress, poetry, luck, insomnia
We cannot say: a music, two waters, three oils, two breads atau four irons.
Generally, uncountable nouns are:
| (1) | Names of liquids or fluids, such as: beer, blood, coffee, gasoline, ink, juice, ketchup, liquor, milk, nitric acid, oil, petrol, rain, saliva, shampoo, soup, syrup, tea, urine, water, and wine. |
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| (2) |
Names of shapeless or sticky substances, such as: chalk, corn, dirt, dust, flour, grass, pepper, rice, salt, sand, spaghetti, sugar, talc, and wheat. |
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| (3) | Names of materials considered an inseparable group, such as: bread, butter, cheese, chocolate, cloth, cotton, glass, gold, hair, honey, ice, iron, leather, meat, metal, mud, paper, silver, soap, soil, time, toothpaste, wood, and wool. |
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| (4) | Names of gases, such as: air, fog, nitrogen, oxygen, pollution, smog, smoke, and steam. |
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| (5) |
Abstract nouns or qualities, such as: comfort, depth, faith, gratitude, greed, joy, kindness, luck, music, news, patience, richness, space, time, trust, and width. |
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| (6) |
Names of languages, such as: Arabic, Chinese, Danish, English, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Indonesian, Javanese, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish. |
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| (7) |
Names of some games, such as: athletics, badminton, baseball, basketball, bowling, bridge, chess, football, table tennis, tennis, volleyball, and soccer. |
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| (8) | Names of school or academic subjects, such as: anthropology, architecture, biology, chemistry, engineering, ethics, gynaecology (gynecology), history, literature, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, phonology, physics, politics, psychology. |
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| (9) | Things related to nature: electricity, dew, fire, gravity, hail, heat, light, lightning, sleet, snow, storm, sunshine, thunder, weather. |
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| (10) |
Nouns in the form of a verb + -ing (gerunds), such as: camping, climbing, dancing, diving, hiking, rowing, running, swimming, and walking. |
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| (11) | Names of groups of things that are considered an inseparable single unit, such as: baggage, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, garbage, jewellery (jewelry), luggage, machinery, and money. |
How can we know whether a word is a countable or uncountable noun?
To find out, we can check it in an English dictionary. The recommended dictionaries are:
(1) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Oxford University Press.
(2) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman.
We can look up the word in the dictionary. For example, bread n [u].
The letter n stands for noun, and [u] means uncountable.
If the dictionary shows [c], it means countable.
Are there nouns in English that can be both countable and uncountable?
Yes, there are some nouns that can be both countable and uncountable. We need to check them in a dictionary. Of course, the meaning of the word as a countable noun and as an uncountable noun can be slightly different.
Examples:
| (1) | hair
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| (2) | experience
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| (3) | dinner
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Here are some nouns that can be both countable and uncountable: colour/color, confidence, difference, drink, food, pity, pleasure, powder, preference, responsibility, sentiment, suicide, trade, tradition, tragedy, trial, water, and work.
How do we count things that are uncountable nouns?
We count uncountable nouns by measuring them — for example, by counting how many glasses, bottles, packs, and so on.
If the uncountable noun refers to only one unit, we say:
a glass of water, a piece of cheese, a bowl of rice, a bottle of honey,
a game of badminton, a cup of coffee, a bucket of water, a can of beer,
a jar of honey, a mug of tea, a pan of food, a sack of rubbish,
a tube of toothpaste dan lain-lain
If the uncountable noun refers to more than one unit, we say:
two glasses of water, two pieces of cheese, three bowls of rice,
four bottles of honey, two games of badminton dan four cups of coffee
Here are some quantity phrases used with uncountable nouns:
some, a lot of, too much, much, a little, little, a great deal of, plenty of,
lots of, not any/no, most, all, two thirds of, a large a mount of,
a small quantity of
Examples:
some water, a lot of rice, too much talking, a little salt, a great deal of butter, plenty of milk, lots of ink, not any/no sugar, most air, all juice,
two thirds of the money, a large amount of petrol, a small quantity of oil
| (a) |
The following words are always in the plural form: |
| (b) | We say “dozens / hundreds of oranges,” but “two dozen / hundred oranges.” |
| (c) | Some nouns have the same singular and plural form, such as: cannon, deer, fish, grass, means, salmon, sheep, series, species, and précis. |
| (d) | If a compound noun functions as an adjective, the noun does not take a plural form. Examples: a ten-year-old boy, a ten-rupiah note, a three-hour talk, a seven-day week |
| (e) | The plural forms of brother-in-law, commander-in-chief, and passer-by are: brothers-in-law (not brother-in-laws), commanders-in-chief (not commander-in-chiefs), and passers-by (not passer-bys). |
| (f) | Most abstract nouns can function as either countable or uncountable nouns. Therefore, if we are unsure, we should check them in the dictionary. |
‘One’ is used to substitute a singular noun, whereas ‘ones’ is used to substitute a plural noun.
Examples of the uses of 'one':
| (a) | Did you bring a dictionary? Yes, I brought one. |
| (b) | Did you see a car? Yes, I saw one. |
Examples of the uses of 'one' and 'ones' with singular and plural nouns:
| singular nouns | plural nouns |
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| Which book? | Which books? |
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| the blue one | the blue ones |
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| this one | some red ones |
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| that one | these blue ones, not ‘these ones’ |
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| a big one | several good ones |
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| this red one | the two new ones |
| (1) | ‘one’ is used to substitutea singular countable noun that is modified by the demonstratives ‘this’, that + descriptive adjectives ‘blue’, big, red (this/that big one) or the article ‘the’ + descriptive adjectives ‘blue’, big, red. (the blue one). |
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| (2) | ‘One’ is used to substitute a singular countable noun that is modified by the demonstratives ‘this’ or ‘that’ plus descriptive adjectives (e.g., this/that big one), or by the article ‘the’ plus descriptive adjectives (e.g., the blue one). | ||||
| (3) | We do not say: We say: several, a few, these, or some — without ‘ones’. Examples: I want several, He wants a few, They want some, We want these. |
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| (4) |
We do not use one after possessive adjectives. |
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| (5) | We use some to substitute any + plural noun. Example: Do you have any notebooks? I need some. |
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| (6) | If the noun uses the + singular noun, we use it to substitute the noun. Examples:
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| (7) | If the noun uses the + plural noun, we use them to substitute the noun. Examples:
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| (1) | ANOTHER + SINGULAR NOUN/ONE | ||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | THE OTHER + SINGULAR NOUN/ONE | ||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | THE OTHER + PLURAL NOUN/ONES | ||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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Examples:
| (a) | Some students came on foot, and others came by bus. |
| (b) | We need to help others less fortunate. |
| (c) | The group consists of three students, three teachers and three others. |
‘others’ means people or things that are additional to or different from those mentioned.
Examples:
| (a) | The two lovers love each other. |
| (b) | The members of the family love one another. |
‘Each other’ is used to show that each person in a group of two people does something to the other.
‘One another’ is used to show that each person in a group of more than two people does something to the others.
However, in modern English, each other and one another can both be used for two or more people.
Examples:
Every other week we have a meeting.
‘every other’ means every second (one)
Examples:
another five years, another five dollars, another five kilometres/kilometers
Examples:
| (a) | I met her the other day. |
| (b) | I saw you the other week. |
| (a) | ‘the other day’, the other week means two or three days ago and two or three weeks ago. |
| (b) | ‘Other’ can be preceded by possessive adjectives (my, our, your, his, her, their, its) or by the article the, and it can be followed by either singular or plural nouns. (Examples: my other book, his other houses) |
| (c) |
‘Other’ can also follow expressions of quantity such as several, a few, some, many, etc. Examples: several other students |
‘There’ is a word used as the subject of a sentence with the helping (or auxiliary) verb be (am, is, are) and sometimes with other verbs such as go, come, seem, appear, or live to introduce something or somebody for the first time. The real subject comes after the verb.
Examples:
| (a) | There are some chairs in the classroom. |
| (b) | There seems to be a misunderstanding. |
| (c) | There once lived a wise king. |
There is a book on the desk means A book is on the desk, but A book is on the desk is not commonly used.
If the noun is in the plural form, use there are; and if the noun is in the singular form, use there is. The expletive ‘there’ can also be used with an adverbial of place or an adverbial of time.
Examples:
| (a) | There are some dictionaries on the desk. |
| (b) | There are a few pens on the shelf. |
| (c) | There is a bed in the room. |
| (d) | There is going to be a meeting next week. |
| (e) | There will be some important guests at the party tomorrow. |
| (1) | Actually, there has no real meaning. It is used to fill the subject position so that the sentence becomes complete and grammatically correct. That is why there is called an expletive. | ||||||||||||
| (2) |
‘There’ is used with different kinds of tenses. Examples:
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| (3) | ‘There’ as an expletive is different from there that means in, at, or to that place or position. In the following sentences, the second there means in, at, or to that place or position (adverb). Examples:
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| (4) | The following are questions and their short answers.
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| (5) | ‘There’ is used in exclamatory sentences. When we see somebody or something, we can say: There is Michael!; There is Susan!; There is the star!; There is the dog!; There you are!; There it is!; There goes the bus! |
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| (6) | Words other than be that can be used with there include live, seem, go, appear, and come. Examples:
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‘Demonstratives’ are words like this, that, these, and those which refer to which thing or things, or which person or people.
| (1) | The demonstrative this is used to refer to a singular thing that is near the speaker (compared to other things around the speaker). This is placed before either a countable or an uncountable noun. This, that, these, and those can also stand by themselves (they can be used without a noun). | ||||||||||||
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| (2) | The demonstrative that is used to refer to a singular thing that is not near the speaker (compared to other things around the speaker). That is placed before either a countable or an uncountable noun. This, that, these, and those can also stand by themselves (they can be used without a noun). | ||||||||||||
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| (3) | The demonstrative these is used to refer to plural things that are near the speaker (compared to other things around the speaker). These is placed before plural countable nouns. These can also stand by itself (it can be used without a noun). | ||||||||||||
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| (4) | The demonstrative those is used to refer to plural things that are not near the speaker (compared to other things around the speaker). Those is placed before plural countable nouns. Those can also stand by itself (it can be used without a noun). | ||||||||||||
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‘Some’ and ‘any’ are called indefinite determiners. They show an indefinite quantity or amount of something and are placed before a noun.
What is the meaning of some and any when they are placed before a noun?
‘Some’ and ‘any’ mean “a certain number” or “a certain amount.” They mean “a little” when used before uncountable nouns and “a few” when used before plural countable nouns.
Examples:
| (a) | some + countable noun some languages, some photographs, some friends, some guns |
| (b) | some + uncountable noun some milk, some coffee, some money, some furniture, some butter |
In what kind of sentences do we use some and any?
‘Some’ is usually used in positive (affirmative) statements and in questions when offering or requesting something politely. ‘Any’ is used in negative statements and in most questions.
Examples:
| (1) | SOME + NOUN | |
| (a) | There is some water in the fridge. | |
| (b) | Is there some water in the fridge? | |
| (c) | I have some money. | |
| (d) | Do you have some money? | |
| (e) | He wants to buy some magazines. | |
| (2) | ANY + NOUN | |
| (a) | I don’t have any homework. | |
| (b) | I won’t buy any coffee. | |
| (c) | She doesn’t have any friends. | |
| (d) | I don’t have any money at all. | |
| (e) | We don’t accept any credit cards. | |
‘Some’ and ‘any’ are called indefinite pronouns. In this case, ‘some’ and ‘any’ are not followed by a noun.
Examples:
| (a) | There is some in the kitchen. |
| (b) | Some work harder, and some do not. |
| (c) | I don’t have any. Have you got some? / Do you have some? |
‘Somebody’ and ‘someone’ mean a person who is not specific, while ‘something’ means a thing that is not specific. ‘Somebody’, ‘someone’, and ‘something’ are usually used in positive statements and in questions that are offers or requests. ‘Anybody’, ‘anyone’, and ‘anything’ are used in negative statements and in most questions.
Examples:
| (a) | She said something, but I did not say anything. |
| (b) | He met somebody, but I did not see anybody. |
| (c) | Do you want anything else? |
| (d) | Did you tell him about anything interesting? |
| (e) | I did not eat any meat. |
| (f) | Do you know any Indonesian? |
| (g) | I bought some pens, but I did not buy any pencils. |
| (1) |
If ‘some’, ‘somebody’, ‘someone’, or ‘something’ are used in a question, the speaker usually expects the answer to be “yes.”
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| (2) |
‘some’ can mean approximately or about.
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| (3) |
‘Something’ can mean a part of a word, name, or number that someone has forgotten.
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| (4) |
‘Something’ can mean “a little.”
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| (5) | ‘Something’ can also mean something to eat or drink. Examples: Would you like something to eat or to drink? |
| (6) |
‘Anything’, ‘anybody’, and ‘anyone’ each also mean “anything at all” or “any person” and can be used in positive sentences
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| (7) | ‘something like’ means something similar to. Examples:
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| (8) | ‘Someday’ means “sometime” or “one day.” Examples:
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‘Many’ means a great number of. ‘Much’ means a great amount of. ‘A lot of’ means either a great number of or a great amount of. We use ‘many’ with countable nouns and ‘much’ with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
| (a) | many computers, many diseases, many accidents, many people |
| (b) | much money, much oil, much butter, much food |
We can use ‘a lot of’ with all kinds of nouns. We can say: a lot of computers, a lot of diseases, a lot of accidents, a lot of people, a lot of money, a lot of oil, a lot of butter, and a lot of food.
What are the differences between a lot of, many and much?
We use ‘a lot of’ and ‘many’ in all types of sentences — positive, negative, and questions — whereas ‘much’ is usually used in questions and negative sentences. ‘Much’ is seldom used in positive sentences.
Examples of the uses of ‘much’ :
| (a) | Do you have much money? |
| (b) | I don’t drink much tea? |
| (c) | Did you buy much food? |
| (d) | Did you have much difficulty finding the place? |
| (e) | She doesn’t eat much meat. |
Followings are the uses of expressions of quantity:
| Positive Statements: | ||
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I have a lot of money. |
I have lots of money | |
| I have a lot of rupiah(s). | I have lots of rupiah(s). | |
| Many students are late. | ||
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| Negative Statements: | ||
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I don’t have much money. |
I don’t have many rupiah(s). | |
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| Do you have much money? | How much money? | |
| Questions: | ||
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Do you have many rupiah(s)? |
How many rupiah(s)? | |
'a lot of' can be replaced by 'lots of'. 'a lot of' is more formal than ' lots of'.
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(1) |
We can say 'a great deal of money' instead of 'much money' (uncountable nouns) and 'a great number of rupiahs' instead of 'many rupiahs' (countable nouns). Please note that Pteh plural form of 'rupiah' is 'rupiah' or 'rupiahs'. some foreign currencies have the same form in plural and singular form such as yen, baht. The plural form of pound sterling is pounds sterling. |
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(2) |
W can say plenty of money/rupiah(s). ‘plenty of’ can be used with both uncountable nouns and countable nouns. |
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(3) |
‘much’ and a lot can be used without a noun. 'much' and a lot function as an adverb and means 'very much'.
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(4) |
‘much’ is also used with an adjective that comes from the past participle. In conversation we can use' very'.
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(5) |
‘much’ is also used before comparative adjectives/adverbs.
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(6) |
If the adjective comed from the the present participle, we use 'very'.
In conversation we can say: |
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(7) |
We usually avoid the use of much and many as the object of a postive sentence. We use a lot of or plenty of as the object of a positive sentence.
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(8) |
We can also say:
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| (1) | ‘A little’ means ‘a small amount of’. It is placed before an uncountable noun. Examples: a little money, a little soap, a little butter |
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| (2) | ‘A little’ can function as an adverb Examples:
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(3) |
‘‘A few’ means ‘a small number of’. It is placed before a plural countable noun. |
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(4) |
‘Little’ has a negative meaning. It means ‘not much’ and is placed before an uncountable noun. |
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| (5) | ‘Few’ has a negative meaning. It means ‘not many’ and is placed before a plural countable noun. few friends, few people, few tables |
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‘All of’, ‘some of’, ‘none of’, ‘most of’, ‘half of’, and ‘any of’ are used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:
| (a) | all of the cars | all of the books | all of the milk | all of the coffee |
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| all the cars | all the books | all the milk | all the coffee | |
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| all cars | all books | all milk | all coffee | |
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| (b) | some of the houses | some of the rice | ||
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| some houses | some houses | |||
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| (c) | none of the watches | none of the chocolate | ||
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| none of the pencils | none of the chocolate | |||
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| (khusus ‘none of’, tidak ada bentuk lain) | ||||
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| (d) | most of the shoes | most of the tea | ||
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| most shoes | most tea | |||
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| (e) | half of the teachers | half of the water | ||
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| half the teachers | half the water | |||
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| (f) | half an hour | half a dozen | half a bottle | |
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| a half hour | a half dozen | a half bottle | ||
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| (g) | any of the books | any of the soup | ||
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| any books | any soup | |||
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(1) |
If there is a possessive adjective (my, his, her, its, our, your, their, Fred’s, Anton’s), a demonstrative (this, that, these, those), or the article ‘the’ before a noun, we can use ‘of’ (as in all of, most of, none of).
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(2) |
If there is no possessive adjective, demonstrative, or the article ‘the’ before a noun, we say ‘all cars’, ‘most shoes’. We cannot say ‘most of shoes’, ‘all of shoes’, ‘none of shoes’, or ‘none shoes’. | ||||
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(3) |
The phrase ‘none of’ can take either a singular or a plural verb. ‘None’ is used with a singular verb in formal British English and with a plural verb in informal British English. In American English, a plural verb is generally used.
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| (4) | Regarding ‘all’ and ‘half’, we can say ‘all these shoes’ / ‘all of these shoes’, ‘all my shoes’ / ‘all of my shoes’, and ‘half these shoes’ / ‘half of these shoes’, ‘half my shoes’ / ‘half of my shoes’. | ||||
| (5) | Regarding ‘half’, we can say ‘half an hour’, ‘a half hour’, ‘half a dozen’, ‘a half dozen’, ‘half a bottle’, or ‘a half bottle’. | ||||
| (6) | We can say ‘all of / most of / half of / some of / none of’ + an object pronoun (it, you, us, them). | ||||
| (7) | If ‘any’ is used with a singular countable noun, it means one of a particular kind of thing or person, no matter which one. Examples:
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| (8) | ‘All’, ‘most’, ‘some’, ‘none’, ‘half’, and ‘any’ can be used independently. Examples: We invited 30 students, and all/most/some/none/half are already here. |
‘One’, ‘each’, and ‘every’ are followed by a singular countable noun. ‘One of’, ‘each of’, and ‘every one of’ are followed by a plural noun or a pronoun.
‘One’, ‘each’, and ‘every’ are followed by a singular countable noun.
Examples:
| (a) | One/Each boy is here. |
| (b) | Every one has a candle |
‘One of’, ‘each of’, and ‘every one of’ are followed by a plural countable noun.
Examples:
| (a) | One of the boys is here. |
| (b) | Each of the boys has a candle. |
| (c) | Every one of the boys has a candle. |
| (1) | All verbs used after ‘one of’, ‘each of’, and ‘every one of’ must be in singular form. | ||||||
| (2) | ‘Every’ is used to refer to all the members of a group of people or things, considered individually. | ||||||
| (3) | ‘Everyone’, written as one word, means ‘everybody’. ‘Every one’, written as two words, means ‘each one’. | ||||||
| (4) | ‘One’ and ‘each’ can be used independently, but ‘every one’ cannot. Examples:
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Sentences in the present perfect continuous tense are sentences in which the verb form shows an action or event that began in the past and continues up to the present time, or an action or event that has just finished.
Examples:
| (a) |
He has been studying English for three hours. The action or event began in the past and continues up to the present time. |
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| (b) |
They have been working hard. They are tired. The action or event began in the past and has just finished. |
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The present perfect continuous tense is a combination of the present perfect tense and the present continuous tense.
| He has studied English for three hours. | (the present perfect tense) |
| He is studying. | (the present continuous tense) + |
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| He has been studying English for three hours. | (the present perfect continuous tense) |
The form of the present perfect continuous tense is:
the formula:
subject + has/have + been + verb + ing
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They have been working for three hours. |
| He/ She/ It has been working for three hours. |
Negative Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They have not / haven’t been working for three hours. |
| He/ She/ It has not / hasn’t been working for three hours. |
Questions:
| Have I/ we/ you/ they been working for three hours? |
| Has he/ she/ it been working for three hours? |
Short Answer:
| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they have. |
| he/ she/ it has. | ||
| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they have not / haven’t. |
| he/ she/ it has not / hasn’t. |
| (1) | The third-person singular subjects (he, she, it) use has, while other subjects (I, we, you, they) use have. | ||||
| (2) | After has or have in the present perfect continuous tense, we use been followed by the –ing form of the main verb. In the sentence “He is studying,” is becomes has been. | ||||
| (3) | We can also use the present perfect continuous tense to show that an action or event has been happening many times. Examples:
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| (1) | Examples of sentences in the present perfect continuous tense that show an activity, action, or event which began in the past, has been continuing for a short period of time, and is still happening now: | ||||||||
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The present perfect continuous tense is used with adverbials of time such as for the last ten minutes, for one hour, all morning, and since an hour ago. The present perfect continuous tense emphasizes the duration of an action that has lasted for a short period of time but has been happening continuously.
| (2) | Examples of sentences in the present perfect continuous tense that show an activity, event, or action which began in the past and is still happening now, but with occasional breaks because it has been happening for quite a long time. The adverbials used are lately, recently, and in recent years: | ||||||||||
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| (3) | Examples of sentences in the present perfect continuous tense that show that an activity, event, or action has just finished. | ||||||
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In sentence (3)(c) above, we can clearly see that the activity or action has just finished because we ask the person when he or she has finished swimming.
The present perfect continuous tense emphasizes an action or event that started at a particular time in the past and continues up to the moment of speaking, whereas the present perfect tense emphasizes only the result of what has happened. The present perfect continuous tense can also express an action or event that has just finished.
THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
Sentences in the past continuous tense are sentences in which the verb form shows that an action or event was in progress at a particular time in the past. The action or event began before that time, continued for a while, and then ended in the past.
Examples:
| (a) | What were you doing at three o’clock yesterday? |
| (b) | I was doing my homework at three o’clock yesterday. |
“I was doing the homework” happened in the past and was taking place at three o’clock yesterday. So, there are two ideas expressed in the sentence, namely:
| (a) | It was three o’clock. |
| (b) | I was doing my homework. |
The form of the past continuous tense:
the formula:
subject + be (was/were) + verb + ing
Statements:
| We/ You/ They were | } | working from 3 pm to 4 pm yesterday. |
| I/ He/She/ It was |
Negative Statements:
| We/ You/ They were not / weren’t I/ He/ She/ It was not / wasn’t |
} | working from 3 pm to 4 pm yesterday. |
Questions:
| Was I/ he/ she/ it | } | working from 3 pm to 4 pm yesterday? |
| Were you/ we/ they |
Short Answers:
| Yes, | { | we/ you/ they were. |
| I/ he/ she/ it was. | ||
| No, | { | we/ you/ they were not / weren’t. |
| I/ he/ she/ it was not / wasn’t. |
In the past continuous tense, there are usually two events that happened in the past at the same time. One event lasted longer than the other. The event that lasted longer is usually in the past continuous tense because it shows duration. If the action did not last long, we use the simple past tense.
Examples:
| (a) | The phone rang. I was doing my homework. |
| I was doing my homework when the phone rang. | |
| (b) | You came to my school. I was having an exam. |
| I was having an exam when you came to my school. |
Although we do not know the time of the incident, event, or situation, we know that at that time there was another event that happened at the same time. We use the clauses 'when the phone rang' and 'when you came to my school' to replace the adverbial phrases of time 'at three o’clock' and 'at five o’clock'.
We can also use a while-clause with the past continuous tense. The while-clause can also be replaced with an as-clause.
Examples:
| (a) | The phone rang while/as I was doing my homework. |
| (b) | You came to the school while/as I was having an exam. |
What if two actions happened at the same time and their durations were almost the same? In that case, we use a while-clause, and both clauses are in the past continuous tense.
Examples:
| (a) | I was watching TV while he was listening to the radio. |
| (b) | I was practising/practicing while he was doing his homework |
| (a) | We can use while with the simple past tense to express events that lasted for quite a long time. Examples: I watched TV while you listened to the radio. |
| (b) | We can use when with the simple present tense and the present continuous tense to express events that last for a long time and occur regularly. Examples: The telephone always rings when we are having breakfast. |
Apart from the time adverbials mentioned above—such as three o’clock, five o’clock, when-clauses, and while-clauses—the past continuous tense can stand alone as long as the speaker already knows the time of the event. Therefore, the time adverb does not need to be mentioned again.
Examples:
| John | : What were you doing (at that time)? |
| Mary | : I was sleeping. |
The meaning of the question above is “What were you doing at that time?” The phrase at that time does not need to be mentioned again because both speakers already know the time of the event.
Additional examples of sentences in the past continuous tense:
| (a) | What were you doing all day yesterday? |
| (b) | ‘What do you think?’ ‘I am sorry. I wasn’t listening.’ |
| (c) | Where were you hiding all these years?. We couldn’t find you. |
| (d) | She was very pretty that night. She was wearing a long dress. |
| (e) | I saw you this morning at the restaurant. What were you doing? |
| (f) | A crowd of people were standing in the street. They were looking at a new motorbike. |
| (g) | Just as I was stepping on the bus, I dropped my bag. |
| (h) | ‘Where were you at that hour?’ ‘I was visiting a friend.’ |
| (a) | Some time indicators used in the past continuous tense are all day long, all these years, at five o’clock yesterday, all last Sunday, and all this afternoon. |
| (b) | The past continuous tense is also used to express past habits. Examples: She was always complaining. |
ADVERBS
Adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire sentences.
Examples: quickly, neatly, sincerely
| (a) | He did it quickly. |
| (b) | She works neatly. |
| (c) | They talk sincerely. |
Words like quickly, neatly, and sincerely are adverbs because they describe the verbs did, work, and talk, respectively. Such adverbs are called adverbs of manner. These adverbs tell us how someone does something — quickly, neatly, or sincerely.
The way to form adverbs of manner is by adding the suffix -ly to the end of the adjective.
| adjectives | → adverbs | |
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| busy | → busily | |
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| careful | → carefully | |
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| clear | → clearly | |
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| lazy | → lazily | |
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| nervous | → nervously | |
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| perfect | → perfectly | |
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(1) |
For adjectives that end in -y and are preceded by a consonant, when the suffix -ly is added, the letter y changes to i. |
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(2) |
For adjectives ending in -le, when the suffix -ly is added, the -e is omitted. |
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(3) |
Examples of other adverbs: |
| (4) | For adjectives ending in -ic (and sometimes -al), when the suffix -ly is added, an extra l is inserted, forming -lly. For example: periodically, scientifically, historically. |
| (5) | There are also adjectives that end in -ly, such as deadly, friendly, motherly, lively, and cowardly. |
| (1) | adverbs that describe adjectives | ||||||||||||||||||||
| almost, completely, entirely, even, exactly, extremely, just, merely, nearly, only, partially, purely, quite, rather, simply, solely, somewhat, specially, too, utterly, very, wholly | |||||||||||||||||||||
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Examples:
Adverbs that describe these adjectives can also be formed by adding -ly to the adjective. Examples include awfully, terribly, horribly, extremely, dreadfully, seriously, reasonably, incredibly, and surprisingly.
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| (2) | adverbs that describe other adverbs | ||||||||
| extremely, quite, rather, too, very | |||||||||
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Examples:
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accordingly, actually, advisedly, allegedly, besides, certainly, decidedly, eventually, evidently, exactly, finally, fortunately, however, inevitably, indeed, luckily, maybe, moreover, namely , nevertheless, perhaps, now, obviously, otherwise, possibly, precisely, presumably, probably, strangely, suddenly, surely, then, therefore, undeniably, undoubtedly, unexpectedly
Examples:
| (a) | Fortunately, I was not in their car. |
| (b) | Finally, we arrived there. |
| (c) | At last, we passed. |
| (d) | Obviously, he is lying. |
| (e) | Luckily, we did not meet him. |
To find out what kind of word it is, we should check it in a dictionary, because some words can function both as adjectives and as adverbs.
| adjectives | → | adverbs | ||
| bad | → | bad/badly | ||
| early | → | early | ||
| fast | → | fast | ||
| good | → | well | ||
| hard | → | hard | ||
| late | → | late |
| (1) | ‘not’ precedes adverbs. | ||||||||
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| (2) | ‘not’ follows adverbs | ||||||||
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| (3) | 'not' precedes or follows adverbs | ||||||||
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TYPES OF ADVERBS
| (1) | Adverbs of manner are adverbs that show how somebody does something or how something happens. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | Adverbs of place and direction are adverbs that show where an action or event happens and in which direction it moves. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | Adverbs of time are adverbs that show when something is done or when something happens. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | Adverbs of frequency are adverbs that show how often something happens or is done. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | Adverbs of degree are adverbs that show how intensely or to what extent a trait or action is expressed. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (6) | Focus adverbs are adverbs that show or draw attention to the most important part of a sentence. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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These focus adverbs are different from most adverbs because they can explain:
| (1) | noun – Even the father may not smoke. |
| (2) | pronoun – Only I can do this. |
| (3) | prepositional phrases – They didn’t come only because of her. |
| (4) | subordinate clauses – I can’t guess exactly why they left early. |
| (7) | ‘Conjunctive adverbs’ are adverbs that connect one sentence to another by showing the relationship between them. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (8) | Explanatory adverbs are adverbs that provide more detailed information or clarify a statement. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (9) | Relative adverbs are adverbs that connect two clauses by showing a relationship such as time, place, or reason. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (10) | ‘Exclamatory adverbs’ – Adverbs that express sudden emotions such as surprise, admiration, pleasure, and so on. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (11) | ‘Interrogative adverbs’ are Adverbs that are used to ask questions and require information as an answer. |
| Examples: how, why, when, where How, when, why and where did you do it? |
| (12) | ‘Sentence adverbs’ are adverbs that describe or modify an entire sentence, showing the speaker’s attitude or opinion. | ||||
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Examples:
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Most words ending in -ed + -ly and -ing + -ly can function as sentence adverbs, such as advisedly (after careful thought), decidedly (definitely), amazingly, surprisingly, and confusingly.
| (13) | ‘Viewpoint adverbs’ are adverbs that express the perspective from which something is considered or described. Viewpoint adverbs are also sentence adverbs. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (14) |
‘Summary adverbs’ are adverbs that summarize or give a general comment on what has been said previously. |
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Examples:
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| (15) | ‘Comment adverbs’ are adverbs that show opinions or comments, and express how we judge something (such as possibility or behaviour). Comment adverbs are also sentence adverbs. |
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THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
(INTRODUCTION)
‘Modal auxiliary verbs’ are words such as can, will, shall, may, might, should, ought to, must, and could that are used together with the base form of a verb and are placed before the main verb (or before the subject in questions).
the formula:
subject + the modal auxiliary + infinitive
| Positive Statements: | He can do it. |
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| Negative Statements: | He cannot do it. |
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| Questions: | Can he do it? |
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| Short Answers: | Yes, he can. No, he cannot/can’t. |
Pay attention to the forms and meanings of the modal auxiliary verbs:
| (1) | will → future | ||||||
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| (2) | could → ability in the past, possibility | ||||||
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| (3) | can → ability, permission | ||||||
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| (4) | may → permission | ||||||
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| (5) | might → possibility | ||||||
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| (6) | should/ought to → obligation, desirability | ||||||
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| (7) | must → conclusion, probability, necessity | ||||||
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| (1) | ‘The modal auxiliary verb’ and the verb that follows it do not change according to person or number. |
| (2) | ‘The modal auxiliary verb’ is placed immediately after the subject in a sentence. |
THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS:
CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO
| (1) | ‘can’ expresses ability or capability. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘can’ is also used to express permission. | ||||
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Examples:
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The negative form cannot is written as one word and is shortened to can’t.
| (1) | 'could' is used to express a possibility or likelihood. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | 'could' also functions as the past form of 'can'. | ||||
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Examples:
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The negative form of ‘could not’ is abbreviated to 'couldn’t'.
Examples:
| (a) | I am able to swim three miles a day. |
| (b) | I was able to finish it on time. |
‘be able to’ expresses the ability on one occasion only in the past when used in the simple past tense.
THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS:
WILL, SHALL, WOULD
| (1) | ‘will’ and ‘shall’ are used to indicate an event that will occur in the future (the future tense). ‘Will’ is used with all subject pronouns (I, we, you, they, he, she, it), while ‘shall’ is used mainly with I and we. The use of shall with I and we is more common in British English, while will is used in American English. | ||||
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Examples:
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The negative form of will not is shortened to won’t, and the negative form of shall not is shortened to shan’t.
| (2) | ‘shall’ in the following interrogative sentences is used to express an offer or a suggestion. | ||||||||||||
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Exzamples:
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| (3) | ‘shall’ is also used to give instructions when it is used with the subjects he, she, it, you, and they. | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | ‘would’ is usually used as the past form of ‘will’ in indirect (reported) speech. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘would’ is used to express an action that was done regularly in the past. | ||||
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Examples:
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The negative form would not is shortened to wouldn’t.
THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS:
MAY, MIGHT
| (1) | ‘may’ is used to express permission. The negative form is may not, which is rarely shortened to mayn’t. | ||||||||||||
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Examples:
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Use can or could in request sentences with the subject you.
Examples: Can/Could you help me with this seat-belt, please?
| (2) | ‘May’ is used to express possibility. | ||||||||
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Examples:
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‘may’, when used to express permission, is common in announcements or formal instructions. ‘Can’ is used in conversational language. ‘Could’ is used to express permission politely (e.g., Could I use the telephone?).
| (1) | ‘might’ is used to express a possibility that could happen. Although what is stated may be true, it is very unlikely to occur. The possibility expressed by might is smaller than that expressed by may. The negative form is might not, which can be shortened to mightn’t. | ||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘might’ is used as the past form of ‘may’, especially in indirect (reported) speech. | ||||||
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Examples:
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THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS:
MUST, SHOULD, OUGHT TO
| (1) | 'must' is used to express necessity or obligation. | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | To express necessity, we can also use have to with the subjects I, we, you, and they, and has to with the third-person singular subjects he, she, and it. Have to means having no choice but to do something because of a compelling situation or because someone tells us to. Examples:
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| (3) | Negative forms using 'must' and 'have to' have different meanings. Examples:
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| (4) | 'mustn't' means 'not be allowed to'. Examples: You mustn’t smoke here. (You are not allowed to smoke here.) |
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| (5) | ‘need’ can be used to replace must in questions and negative sentences.” Examples: Need I accompany you? Yes, you must or No, you needn’t. |
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| (6) | “The negative form must not can be abbreviated to mustn’t for the meaning above, but not for must when it expresses a conclusion.” |
| (2) | ‘must’ is used to express an inference or a conclusion based on logical reasoning. | ||||||||||||
Examples:
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‘must not’ when it expresses a conclusion cannot be abbreviated.
| (3) | ‘must’ is used to express a strong probability or logical certainty. | ||||||||
Examples:
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| (1) | ‘must’ used to express a conclusion is similar to ‘must’ used to express probability, because their meanings overlap. | ||||||||
| (2) | If you want to say something is impossible, use 'can't'. Examples:
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| ‘Should’ and ‘ought to’ follow the structure subject + should/ought to + infinitive. The negative forms are should not and ought not to.” |
| (1) | ‘Should’ and 'ought to' are used to express obligation, which is something that is right to be done. ‘should’ and 'ought to' means it is advisable that ... | ||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | 'should' is used to express something that is expected to happen, but has not happened (expectation) | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | ‘ought to’ is used to express what should have been done compared to what is currently happening. (criticism or regret) | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | ‘should’ and ‘ought to’ are used to express the possibility of something happening (possibility) | ||||||||
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Examples:
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We can say the short answer: ‘Yes, you ought (to)’. ‘to’ is optional.
THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS:
NEED, DARE, USED TO, BE TO
Examples:
| 'need' as a main verb | need as an auxiliary verb | |
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| Positive: | He needs to talk loudly. | No positive statement |
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| Negative: | He doesn’t need to talk loudly. | He needn’t talk loudly. |
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| Questions: | Does he need to talk loudly? | Need he talk loudly? |
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| Short Answers: |
Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t. |
Yes, he must. No, he needn’t. |
| (1) | For positive sentences, we only say I need to talk loudly. We do not say I need talk loudly. | ||||
| (2) | The short answers to questions with need as the modal auxiliary verb are Yes, he must and No, he needn’t. | ||||
| (3) | In positive sentences, ‘need’ as the auxiliary verb is used after the words 'if' or 'whether'.
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| (4) | 'needn't have' is used to express something that someone did in the past but was not actually needed. Examples: You needn’t have come early. (You came early, which was not necessary.) |
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| (5) | 'need' with the meaning of requiring can also function as a regular verb that requires an object. Examples: He needs a dictionary. (need + noun phrase) |
‘dare’ digunakan untuk menyatakan keberanian. ‘dare’ biasanya digunakan dalam kalimat negatif dan kalimat tanya. ‘dare’ jarang digunakan dalam kalimat positif. Dalam kalimat positif kita mengatakan I am not afraid to.... Jika dare berfungsi sebagai kata kerja utama biasa, kita bisa menggunakannya dalam semua tipe kalimat.
Examples:
| dare as the main verb | dare as the auxiliary verb | |
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| Positive: | He dares (to) do it. | No positive statement |
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| Negative: | He doesn’t dare (to) do it. | He dare not do it. |
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| Questions: | Does he dare (to) do it? | Dare he do it? |
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| Short Answers: |
Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t |
No positive statement No, he dare not / daren’t |
| (a) | ‘dare’ as the main verb can use 'to', or it can also not use 'to'. | ||||
| (b) | The past form of 'dare not' is 'dared not'. | ||||
| (c) | ‘dare’ as a modal auxiliary verb is very rarely used in American English. | ||||
| (d) | ‘dare’ is never used in the continuous tense. | ||||
| (e) | Sometimes mixed forms are used as well:
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‘used to’ is used to express a habit that occurred in the past.
Examples:
| American/British | British only | ||||
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| Negative | Negative (not very common) |
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| Questions | Questions (not very common) | ||||
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| Short Answers: | Short Answers | ||||
| Yes, I did. / No, I did not. Yes, she did. / No, she did not. |
Yes, I used to. / No, I used not to. Yes, she used to. / No, she used not to. |
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| (1) | ‘Used to do something’ is different from ‘be used to something/doing something’. ‘be used to something/doing something’ means 'be familiar with something or doing something, which is still valid now'. subject + used to + infinitive [I used to smoke (but I stopped)] subject + be used to + noun / verb + ing [I am used to smoking (and I still do)] Examples:
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| (2) | ‘used not’ can be shortened to 'usedn’t/usen’t' |
| (1) | ‘be + to infinitive’ is used to express instructions, requirements or tasks received. Examples:
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| (2) | ‘be + to infinitive’ is used to express something that has been arranged. Examples:
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| (3) | ‘be + to infinitive’ is used to express something that is certain or destined to happen. Examples:
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| (4) | ‘be + to infinitive’ is used to express something that is contrary to reality. Examples:
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PASSIVE SENTENCES
'Passive sentences' are sentences in which the subject is acted upon, or sentences that state what happens to the subject of the sentence, while active sentences are sentences that state what the subject of the sentence does.
| the formula: subject + be + the past participle | |
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| 'be' in passive sentences determines the tense of the sentence. | |
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| if the main verb (main verb) is in 'be' becomes | |
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| the present tense | → am, is, are |
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| the past tense | → was, were |
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| infinitive | → be |
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| -ing form | → being |
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| the past participle | → been |
Contoh kalimat pasif yang menggunakan kata kerja steal (steal-stole-stolen):
| 1. | the simple present tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + be (am/is/are) + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 2. | the simple past tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + be (was/were) + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 3. | the simple future tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + will + be + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 4. | the simple future tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + be (am/is/are) going to + be + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 5. | the present continuous tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + be (am/is/are) + being + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 6. | the past continuous tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + be (was/were) + being + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 7. | the present perfect tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + has/have + been + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 8. | the past perfect tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + had + been + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| 9. | the future perfect tense | ||||||||||||||
| subject + will have + the past participle | |||||||||||||||
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| (a) | He was injured in the accident. |
| (b) | The shoes have been worn since 2 years ago. |
| (c) | Homework should be done everyday. |
| (d) | It is being executed. |
| (e) | I was being questioned. |
| (f) | They had been asked to do it. |
| (g) | It is going to be sold. |
| (h) | The work will have been done. |
Passive sentences are used:
| (1) | if we think that the object of the sentence is important. The object of the active sentence changes to the subject of the passive sentence. |
| (2) | if we feel that the perpetrator or doer of the action is not important or is already known. The perpetrator or doer does not need to be mentioned again. |
| (3) | if we think that the subject and object of the sentence are important. In this case, we should add by + the subject of the active sentence to emphasize the importance of the doer of the work.‘by + the subject of an active sentence’ is placed immediately after the past participle. Examples: done by Christ, by the doctor, by the boy |
| (a) | The ‘tense’ in active sentences is indicated by changes in the main verb, while the tense in passive sentences is indicated by changes in 'be'. |
| (b) | Not all active sentences can be changed into passive sentences. Only active sentences that have an object can be changed into passive sentences. |
| (c) | Verbs that require an object are called transitive verbs. |
Additional examples:
| (a) | Three hundred packets are delivered | |
| (by the company) every day. | (the simple present tense) | |
| (b) | The car was made in Japan. | (the simple past tense) |
| (c) | The story will be written (by him). | (the simple future tense) |
| (d) | It is being done. | (the present continuous tense) |
| (e) | He was being questioned (by the police) | (the past continuous tense) |
| when I arrived. | ||
| (f) | They have been punished (by their parents). | (the present perfect tense) |
| (g) | It had been done (by nana) long before you came. | (the past perfect tense) |
COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES,
COMPARATIVE ADVERBS
Examples :
| (a) | Anita is slim. |
| Rini is very slim. | |
| Rini is slimmer than Anita. | |
| (b) | John is strong. |
| George is very strong. | |
| George is stronger than John. |
Procedures for Adding the Ending -er to Adjectives
| (1) | Add the ending -er to one-syllable adjectives and add than if there is a second noun following it. | ||||||
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Examples of adjectives with one syllable (one-syllable adjectives)
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| (2) | If the adjective consists of three syllables (adjectives with three syllables) use more. Usually we use more in front of the adjective. Don't forget to add than after the adjective if there is a second noun following it. | ||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | If the adjective consists of two syllables, check it in the dictionary because some of these two-syllable adjectives use the ending -er, and some use ''more'. There are also some that use both, such as | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| (4) | Use more with adjectives ending in -ed, -ful, -ing, -ous, -less |
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Examples:
more surprised, more beautiful, more confusing, more dangerous, more useless |
| (5) | If an adjective consisting of one syllable ends with a consonant and is preceded by a vowel, the consonant must be written double (big → bigger, hot → hotter). |
| (6) | If the adjective ends with a consonant -y, the ending -y changes to -ier. (happy → happier, funny → funnier). | |||||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | There are some exceptions to the following words: the positive form → the comparative form
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| (2) | 'farther' in addition to having the meaning of further can also have the meaning of 'additional'. | |||||||||
| (3) | ‘comparative adjective’ is also used in sentences containing 'of'. Examples:
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Examples:
| (a) | Dina works carefully, but Grace works more carefully than Dina (does). |
| (b) | Lidiya speaks clearly, but Thania speaks more clearly than Lidiya (does). |
There are some exceptions to the following words:
| the positive form | → | the comparative form |
| well | → | better (than) |
| bad/badly | → | worse (than) |
| far | → | further/farther (than) |
‘less than’ is the opposite of ‘more than’. ‘Less than’ is also used with adjectives and adverbs.
| (1) | less + adjective Examples:
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‘comparative adjective dan adverb’ dapat juga diterangkan oleh far atau much untuk penekanan.
Examples:
| (a) | It is far/much more expensive than it used to be. |
| (b) | She is far/much prettier now than last year. |
| (c) | John works far/much more quickly than Joyce does. |
| (1) | the + comparative adjective, the + comparative adjective | ||||
Examples:
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| (2) | the + comparative adverb, the + comparative adverb | ||||||
Examples:
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SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES,
SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS
‘Superlative adjectives’ are used when we compare more than two objects or things. The object or thing with the highest rank uses superlative adjectives.
How to make sentences containing superlative adjectives?
We start with 'the' in front of the adjective, and the adjective itself changes. For adjectives that are monosyllabic and end in -y, we add the ending -est to the end of the adjective.
Examples:
I am the busiest. He is the strongest. They are the slowest.
| (a) | Ricky is careful. |
| (b) | Jonathan is more careful. |
| (c) | Rudie is the most careful (of all). |
| (1) | Note the irregular superlative forms below.
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| (2) | Sentences containing the superlative adjective above are often used with nouns with the following construction: subject + be + superlative adjective + noun + subject + has/have + (ever) + the past participle Examples
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| (3) | Sentences containing superlative adjectives can also be used in sentences containing 'of'. Examples:
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The ‘superlative’ form can also be used with adverbs which are called ‘superlative adverbs’
Examples:
| (a) | He works the most carefully (of all). |
| (b) | He drives the most carelessly (of all). |
| (1) | Pay attention to the irregular forms below. For such, we have to memorize them.
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| (2) | Sentences containing the superlative adverb can also be used in sentences containing 'of'. Examples:
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| (3) | For informal use, the superlative adverb, when placed at the end of a sentence without defining expressions, can be omitted from 'the'. Examples:
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‘the least’ is the opposite of the most. ‘the least’ is also used with adjectives and adverbs.
| (1) | the least + adjective Examples:
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| (2) | the least + adverb Examples:
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EQUAL COMPARISONS: AS...AS, THE SAME AS
GENERAL DIFFERENCE: DIFFERENT FROM
GENERAL SIMILARITY: LIKE, ALIKE
If the two objects or things we compare are the same, we use as... as or the same... as to express it. ‘as... as’ is used with adjectives and adverbs, while the same... as is used with nouns.
Examples:
| (1) | as + adjective + as | ||||||||
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‘as... as’ can also be used with expressions of quantity such as: much, many, little, few.
Examples:
| (a) | He has as much (money) as I do. |
| (b) | She bought as many (books) as he did. |
| (c) | We want as little (salt) as they do. |
| (d) | She has as few (friends) as he does. |
| (2) | as + adverb + as | ||||||||
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| (1) |
‘She eats as fast as him’ is the informal form. For the formal form, use ‘She eats as fast as he does’. |
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| (2) | To state that the two objects or things we are comparing are the same, we can use the negative form of the comparative, namely: adjective/adverb + -er + than atau more + adjective/adverb + than Examples:
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| (3) | The negative form should use 'so...as'. Examples: They are not so rich as we are. |
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Examples:
| (a) | I am the same age as he is. |
| (b) | This car is the same speed as that one. |
| (c) | The house is the same price as the car. |
| (d) | This book is the same thickness as that one. |
| (1) | ‘the same... as’ can also be used without a noun after the same, but with the noun mentioned as the subject. This sentence states that the two objects are the same: Examples:
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| (2) |
Pay attention to the following sentences:
In the sentence above, we have to use 'that of' because what we are comparing is not 'the car, the house, the book' but 'the speed of the car, the price of the house, the thickness of the book and the features of the cellphone'. |
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| (3) | ‘the same’ without 'as' can also be placed at the end of a sentence, but both objects being compared are placed as the subject of the sentence. Examples: This book and that book are the same. |
When the things we compare are not the same, we express it with 'different from'.
Examples:
| (a) | My pen is different from yours. |
| (b) | This cellular phone is different from that one. |
| (c) | These are different from those. |
We can also say different than, but using different from is more formal. ‘different to’ is used in British English.
| (1) | 'like' is an adjective and means 'almost the same as' or 'similar to'. If the thing we are comparing is not the same but almost the same or similar, we can say it by using like. | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘alike’ is an adjective. ‘alike’ is also used to compare two things that are almost the same, but we don’t use a noun after alike. ‘alike’ is used after the helping verb and is placed at the end of the clause. | ||||
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Examples:
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COMPARISON OF QUANTITY
Examples:
| (a) | You don’t have many books. I have more (books) than you do. |
| (b) | You don’t have much money. I have more (money). |
| (c) | I have a lot of money. She has more (money) than I do. |
| (d) | They have the most (money). |
Examples:
| (a) | Oline has little (money). (positive) |
| (b) | Denisa has less (money) than Oline. (comparative) |
| (c) | Lidiya has the least (money) (of all). (superlative) |
few + (plural countable noun), fewer + (plural countable noun) + (than),
the fewest + (plural countable noun)
Examples:
| (a) | I have few (cars). |
| (b) | He has fewer (cars) than I do. |
| (c) | She has the fewest (cars). |
| (1) | as many as + (plural countable noun) | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | as + much + as + (uncountable noun) | ||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | as + few + as + (plural countable noun) | ||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | as + little + as + (uncountable noun) | ||||
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Examples:
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‘as much as’ can be used to express weight (tons, kilogrammes/kilograms, pounds), distance (miles, kilometres/kilometers) and money (dollars).
Examples:
| (a) | We need as much as fifty dollars / ten kilograms of meat. |
| (b) | They have travelled/traveled as much as fifty miles. |
‘multiple number comparatives’ is a form of comparison that compares one object to another with multiples. Usually the multiples used are half, twice, three times, four times and so on.
The sentence construction is as follows:
subject + verb + multiple number + as much/many (noun) as +
noun/pronoun/clause
Examples:
| (a) | This book cost three times as much as the other one. |
| (b) | She has twice as many shoes as she had last year. |
| (c) | James did not do half as much work as John (did). |
| (1) | Do not use constructions with 'more than' (This book costs three times more than the other one). Use 'as much as' for comparisons of things that cannot be counted and 'as many as' for comparisons of things that can be counted. |
| (2) | For the use of adjectives/adverbs we can say: three/four/five times bigger than / as big as atau three/four/five times more fluently than / as fluently as |
| (3) | Especially for twice/half, don't say |
'IT' IN SUBJECT POSITION
| (1) | Time |
| Examples: It’s ten o’clock. It’s Sunday. It’s the fourth of October. It’s September. It’s late. It’s early. It’s Christmas. |
| (2) | Weather |
| Examples: It’s hot in summer. It’s cold during the rainy season. It snows in winter. It’s raining. It’s cloudy. It’s stormy. It’s bright. |
| (3) | Distance (jarak) | ||||||||
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Examples:
If we say five kilometres/kilometers to my house, this means five kilometres/kilometers from here to my house. |
| (4) | Identification (identifikasi) |
| Examples: It’s me. It’s him. It’s Mike. It’s the postman. |
| (1) | It + be + noun + to infinitive | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | It + be + adjective + to infinitive | ||||||
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Examples:
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The adjectives used in the sentences above are pure adjectives and adjectives that come from verbs ending in -ing.
Examples:
pure adjective:
| (a) | desperate |
| (b) | fantastic |
| (c) | funny |
| (d) | healthy |
| (e) | important |
| (f) | necessary |
| (g) | painful |
| (h) | pitiful |
| (i) | polite |
| (j) | right |
| (k) | rude |
| (l) | safe |
| (m) | strange |
| (n) | urgent |
| (o) | wrong |
examples of adjectives in verb + ing form:
| (a) | amazing |
| (b) | amusing |
| (c) | annoying |
| (d) | astonishing |
| (e) | boring |
| (f) | confusing |
| (g) | disappointing |
| (h) | disturbing |
| (i) | embarrassing |
| (k) | exciting |
| (j) | entertaining |
| (l) | frightening |
| (m) | interesting |
| (n) | pleasing |
| (o) | satisfying |
| (p) | tiring |
| (q) | troubling |
| (r) | worrying |
| (1) | It + be + noun + (,) + verb + ing | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | It + be + adjective + (,) + verb + ing | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | It + be + noun + that clause | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | It + be + adjective + that clause | ||||||
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Examples:
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For constructions with adjectives that indicate something important or a command, we use '(should) + infinitive' in the subordinate clause and 'should' is optional.
Examples:
| (a) | It is imperative that he (should) take these pills. |
| (b) | It is essential that he (should) do exercises. |
| (c) | It is important that he (should) be here. |
| (1) | It + be + adverbial of place + that clause | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | It + be + adverbial of time + that clause | ||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | We use a special past tense for constructions with It’s time that..., but the meaning is not in the past but in the present or the future. |
| (2) | We can also say ‘It’s a long time since they left’. |
Additional examples of sentences using 'it' in the subject position:
| (a) | It was very nice to know him the other day. |
| (b) | It was good to give it a try. |
| (c) | It will not be pleasant to be here. |
| (d) | It is surprising to see you. |
| (e) | It is a wise thinking to live and let live. |
| (f) | It was a year ago that he went back to England. |
| (g) | It is irritating that you should talk about it again and again. |
| (h) | It’s time you went to bed. |
‘it’ can also be used with the verbs 'say' and 'take'.
Examples:
| (a) | It says here that there was an explotion last night. |
| (b) | It takes a day to come here. |
THE CONJUNCTIONS:
AND, BUT, OR, YET, SO
'and' is used to connect words, phrases or sentences that have the same connotation.
| (1) | ‘and’ digunakan untuk menyambung kata, frasa atau kalimat yang berkonotasi sama. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Examples:
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| (2) | 'but' is used to connect words, phrases or sentences that have opposite connotations. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Examples:
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| (3) | ‘or’ is used to connect words, phrases or sentences by introducing a choice. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Examples:
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Pay attention to the punctuation of the conjunctions ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘or’. In the examples sentence above, what is connected is the phrase. So we do not use a comma (,).
If the two connected sentences are complete, that is, they have a subject and a predicate, we use a comma (,).
Examples:
| (a) | Robert is here, and Paul is at his girlfriend’s. |
| (b) | John was fast, but Alice was slow. |
| (c) | We can have dinner at home, or we can eat out. |
If we connect parts of a sentence, we do not use commas.
Examples:
| (a) | They came here and watched TV. |
| (b) | She was tired but happy. |
| (c) | We can eat in or eat out. |
'yet' means but at the same time, but even so, nevertheless.
Examples:
| (a) | He trained hard for the contest, yet he couldn’t win. |
| (Eventhough he trained hard for the contest, yet he couldn’t win.) | |
| (b) |
She is a moody girl, yet everybody makes friends with her. |
| (Eventhough She is a moody girl, everybody makes friends with her.) |
'so' has the meaning therefore (therefore), as a result (as a result/consequence).
Examples:
| (a) | She was hungry, so she ate. |
| (She is hungry, therefore she ate.) | |
| (b) | The employer didn’t pay them, so the workers went on strike. |
| (The employer didn’t pay them, therefore the workers went on strike.) |
'for' has the meaning 'because'.
Examples:
| (a) | The plane made an emergency landing, for there had been a problem with its engine. |
| (The plane made an emergency landing because there had been a problem with its engine.) | |
| (b) | He couldn’t get a good mark in the test, for he didn’t study. |
| (He couldn’t get a good mark in the test because he didn’t study.) |
AND... TOO/ALSO, AND SO...,
AND... EITHER, AND NEITHER...
| (1) | ‘and... too’ is used in positive sentences. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (a) | ‘too’ can be replaced with 'as well'. Examples: I have seen this one, and I have seen that one as well. |
| (b) | In spoken language, we can say 'Me too'. Examples: A : I want to go home. B : Me too. |
| (2) | ‘and so...’ is also used to express the above, but the sentence form is different. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | ‘and... either’ is used in negative sentences. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘and neither...’ is also used to express the above but in a different sentence form. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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In spoken language, we can say 'Me neither' or 'Me either'.
Examples:
A : I don’t want to stay.
B : Me neither/Me either.
| (1) | the simple present tense | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | the simple past tense | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | the present continuous tense | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | the simple future tense | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | the past continuous tense | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (6) | the present perfect tense | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (7) | sentences with the modal auxiliary verbs | ||||||||
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Examples:
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TOO, ENOUGH
‘Too’ is placed in front of an adjective or an adverb to indicate that something has more properties than are required or permitted.
| (1) | Examples of using too with adjectives | |||||||||||||||||||
| (1.1) | The subject of the first sentence is the same as the subject of the second sentence. | |||||||||||||||||||
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| (1.2) | The subject of the first sentence is the object of the second sentence. | |||||||||||||||||||
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| (a) | ‘too small’ means comparatively small so that that the shoes cannot be worn. ‘too tight’ means comparatively tight so that the shirt cannot be worn. ‘too slow’ means comparatively slow so that the computer cannot be used. So, too has a negative meaning. The work cannot be done. |
| (b) | For the subject of the first sentence, which is the object of the second sentence, we can use: for + object pronoun + to infinitive + (object pronoun). The last ‘object pronoun’ is optional, if we use ‘for + object pronoun’. |
| (2) | Examples of using too with adverbs | |||||||||
| (2.1) | The subject of the first sentence is the same as the subject of the second sentence. | |||||||||
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| (2.2) | The subject of the first sentence is the object of the second sentence. | |||||||||
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| (1) | ‘too’ can also be used with expressions of quantity Examples: too little, too much, too many, too often |
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| (2) | ‘too’ can also be used in the following sentence models: It + be + too + adjective + a + noun Examples:
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‘enough’ is placed after an adjective to indicate that something is quite as expected.
| (1) | Examples of using enough with adjectives | |||||||||||||
| (1.1) | The subject of the first sentence is the same as the subject of the second sentence. | |||||||||||||
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| (1.2) | The subject of the first sentence is the object of the second sentence. | |||||||||||||
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| (2) | Examples of using enough with adverbs | |||||||||
| (2.1) | The subject of the first sentence is the same as the subject of the second sentence. | |||||||||
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| (2.2) | The subject of the first sentence is the object of the second sentence. | |||||||||
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| (1) | ‘enough’ has a positive meaning because the thing mentioned is in accordance with what is expected, so the work can be carried out except in negative sentences. Examples:
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| (2) | ‘enough’ can be used with nouns, both countable and uncountable nouns. Examples:
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| (3) | 'enough' can also be used with verbs. Examples:
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| (4) | ‘enough’ can be used alone without a noun. Examples: I don’t have enough (money). |
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| (5) | ‘enough’ can also follow a noun. Examples: We haven’t got time enough. |
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| (6) | ‘enough’ can be used with the construction: adjective + enough + noun Examples: We haven’t got a comfortable enough house to live in. |
THE PAST PERFECT TENSE
Sentences ‘the past perfect tense’ are sentences in which the change in verb states an event that occurred before another event in the past.
Examples:
| (a) | The man had gone before you arrived. |
| (b) | They passed the exam because they had studied hard. |
‘the past perfect tense’ can also stand alone like the sentence below. The most important thing here is that there is a comparison of two events in the past where one event happened first. The event that happened first uses the past perfect tense.
Examples:
The show had already begun (when we arrived there).
The people involved in the conversation already know that the event happened in the past, and the continuation of the sentence above when we arrived there was already understood beforehand. So, we don't need to say it again.
Pay attention to the declarative, interrogative and negative sentences along with their short answers:
rumus:
subject + had + the past participle
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | had gone before the man arrived. |
| He/ She/ It |
Questions:
| Had I/ we/ you/ they | } | gone before the man arrived? |
| Had he/ she/ it |
Negative Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | had not gone before the man arrived. |
| He/ She/ It |
| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | had. |
| he/ she/ it | ||||
| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | had not / hadn’t. |
| he/ she/ it |
| (a) | To form an interrogative sentence / question, we simply move 'had' to the front of the sentence. |
| (b) | ‘the past perfect tense’ is usually used with adverbials of time such as before and after, which state that an event occurred before or after another event in the past. |
Pay attention to the following adverbials used with the past perfect tense. These ‘adverbials’ mean that one event happened before or after another event.
| (1) | before | ||||
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| (2) | after | ||||
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| (3) | until | ||||||
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| (4) | just/already | ||||||
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| (5) | when / as soon as | ||||
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| (6) | hardly/scarcely/barely... when... (baru saja... ketika... ) | ||||||
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| (7) | no sooner... than... | ||||
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| (a) | Because he had not followed the direction, he got lost. |
| (b) | They lost because they had not chosen the right answer. |
| (a) | The book was more expensive than I had thought. |
| (b) | The price was much higher than I had expected. |
| (c) | Mary worked more quickly than I had expected. |
| (a) | Although he had followed the direction, he got lost. |
| (b) | Although he had not shown good achievements, the boss appointed him manager. |
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Sentences in ‘the past perfect continuous tense’ are sentences in which the verb changes state an event that is happening before another event occurs. both events occurred in the past. ‘the past perfect continuous tense’ can also state an event that has just happened before another event occurs.
| (a) | He had been studying before you came. |
| (b) | I had been watching TV before it happened. |
| (c) | He had been fighting. His face was black and blue all over. |
|
(a) |
An event was happening before another event occurred. Both events occurred in the past.
|
| (b) |
An event that just happened before another event happened. 
|
Formation of interrogative and negative sentences and their short answers:
rumus:
subject + had + been + verb + ing
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | had been studying before you came. |
| He/ She/ It |
Questions:
| Had I/ we/ you/ they | } | been studying before you came? |
| Had he/ she/ it |
Negative Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | had not been studying before you came. |
| He/ She/ It |
| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | had. |
| he/ she/ it | ||||
| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | had not / hadn’t. |
| he/ she/ it |
| (1) | The short answer for the past perfect continuous tense is the same as the past perfect tense. | ||||
| (2) | ‘the past perfect continuous tense’ is also used to emphasize the duration of an ongoing activity before another activity interrupted it. Both activities occurred in the past. | ||||
|
Examples:
|
‘the past perfect continuous tense’ is also used in indirect speech to replace the past continuous tense and the present perfect continuous tense.
| (a) | He said, ‘She was studying.’ |
| He said that she had been studying. | |
| (b) | They said, ‘We have been swimming.’ |
| They said that they had been swimming. |
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
The sentences in‘the future continuous tense’ are sentences whose verb changes state an event that is happening in the future at a specific time (when another event happens in the future). ‘the future continuous tense’ is also called the future progressive tense.
Examples:
| (a) | What will you be doing at five o’clock tomorrow afternoon? |
| (b) | I will be doing my homework. |
| (c) | I want to watch TV at five o’clock tomorrow. What will you be doing at that time? |
| (d) | I will be watching TV too. |
How do we form the future continuous tense?
‘the future continuous tense’ is actually a combination of the future tense and the present continuous tense.
| I will watch TV. | (the future tense) | |
| I am watching TV. | (the present continuous tense) | + |
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|
||
| I will be watching TV. | (the future continuous tense) | |
After 'I will' we put 'am watching TV'. Because after the auxiliary verb 'will' all verbs must be in the infinitive form, 'am watching TV' changes to 'be watching TV'. The first form of am is 'be'.
How to form the future continuous tense:
the formula:
subject + shall/will + be + verb + ing
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | will be working at five o’clock tomorrow. |
| He/ She/ It |
Questions:
| Will | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | be working at five o’clock tomorrow? |
| he/ she/ it |
Negative Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | will not be working at five o’clock tomorrow. |
| He/ She/ It |
| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | will. |
| he/ she/ it | ||||
| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | will not / won’t. |
| he/ she/ it |
| (a) | For the first person singular 'I' and the first person plural 'we', we can use 'shall', and for other subjects (you, they, he, she, it), we use 'will'. | ||||||||
| (b) | After shall or will, we must use the present verb (infinitive). In the sentences above, we must use the first form of am, is, are, namely 'be'. | ||||||||
| (c) | ‘will not’ is abbreviated to 'won’t', and 'I will' is abbreviated to 'I’ll'. | ||||||||
| (d) | ‘the future continuous tense’ can also be used to express something that will definitely be done or has been planned to be done. Examples: |
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THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
‘the future perfect tense’ adalah suatu kalimat yang perubahan kata kerjanya menyatakan bahwa suatu kejadian yang akan terjadi di masa yang akan datang sudah selesai pada satu saat khusus di masa yang akan datang.
Contoh:
| (a) | What will have been over by the time we arrive? |
| (Apa yang akan sudah berakhir menjelang kita tiba di sana?) | |
| The party will have been over by the time we arrive. | |
| (Pesta akan sudah berakhir menjelang kita tiba di sana?) |
| (b) | The show will start at 7.30 pm and finish at 8.30 pm. |
| (Pertunjukan akan mulai pukul 7.30 malam dan berakhir pukul 8.30 malam.) | |
| It is 7.35 now. | |
| (Sekarang pukul 7.30 malam.) | |
| If we leave now, the show will have finished by the time we get there as it will take us one hour to get there. | |
| (Jika kita berangkat sekarang, pertunjukan akan sudah berakhir menjelang kita tiba di sana karena akan memakan waktu satu jam untuk tiba di sana.) |
‘the future perfect tense’ pada dasarnya adalah penggabungan dari the future tense dan the present perfect tense.
| The show will finish. | (the future tense) | |
|
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| The show has finished. | (the present perfect tense) | + |
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| The show will have finished. | (the future perfect tense) | |
Setelah will, kita masukkan has finished, karena setelah kata kerja will, semua kata kerja yang mengikutinya harus dalam bentuk infinitive. Jadi, has finished berubah menjadi have finished.
Cara membentuk the future perfect tense:
rumus:
subject + will + have + the past participle
Statements:
I/ We/ You/ They/ He/ She will have done it by five o’clock.
It will have finished by five o’clock.
Questions:
Will I/ we/ you/ they/ he/ she have done it by five o’clock?
Will it have finished by five o’clock?
Negative Statements:
It will not / won’t have finished by five o’clock.
I/ We/ You/ They/ He/ She will not have done it by five o’clock.
Short Answers:
Yes, I/ we/ you/ they/ he/ she/ it will.
No, I/ we/ you/ they/ he/ she/ it will not / won’t.
| (1) | Dalam British English, subjek orang pertama I dan We dapat menggunakan shall, tetapi subjek yang lain (you, they, he, she, it) menggunakan will. | ||||
| (2) | Kita dapat juga menempatkan already sesudah kata have. | ||||
|
Contoh tambahan:
| (a) | Next year they will have stayed here for ten years. |
| (b) | In three years’s time I will have written three books. |
| (c) | By five o’clock she will have finished the work. |
| (d) | When he finished work, he will already have worked for three hours. |
THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
‘the future perfect continuous tense’ adalah sebuah kalimat yang perubahan kata kerjanya menyatakan suatu kejadian atau kegiatan yang mulai terjadi di masa yang akan datang dan berlangsung sampai satu titik waktu ketika atau sebelum suatu kejadian lain terjadi. ‘the future perfect continuous tense’ ini menekankan durasi dari kegiatan atau kejadian tersebut.
Contoh:
| (a) | When I reach the age of 70, I will have been living here for 42 years. |
| (Ketika saya mencapai usia 70, saya akan sudah tinggal di sini selama 42 tahun.) |
| (b) | The party will start at 7.00 pm and finish at 9.00 pm. |
| (Pesta akan mulai pukul 7.00 malam dan berakhir pukul 9.00 malam.) | |
| It is 6.30 pm now. | |
| (Sekarang pukul 6.30 malam.) | |
| It takes one hour to get there. | |
| (Akan memakan waktu satu jam untuk tiba di sana.) | |
| When we arrive there, the party will have been going on for 30 minutes. | |
| (Ketika kita tiba di sana, pesta akan sudah berlangsung selama 30 menit.) |
Bagaimanakah kita membentuk the future perfect continuous tense?
‘the future perfect continuous tense’ pada dasarnya adalah penggabungan dari the future perfect tense dengan the present continuous tense.
| I will have lived here for 42 years. | (the future perfect tense) | |
|
|
||
| I am living here. | (the present continuous tense) | + |
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| I will have been living here for 42 years. | (the future perfect continuous tense) | |
Setelah will have kita masukkan am living, tetapi am living ini harus diubah menjadi the past participle, yaitu been living.
Cara membentuk the future perfect continuous tense:
rumus:
subject + will have + been + verb + ing
Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | will have been traveling for 30 minutes. |
| He/ She/ It |
Questions:
| Will | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | have been traveling for 30 minutes? |
| he/ she/ it |
Negative Statements:
| I/ We/ You/ They | } | will not have been traveling for 30 minutes. |
| He/ She/ It |
| Yes, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | will. |
| he/ she/ it | ||||
|
|
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| No, | { | I/ we/ you/ they | } | will not / won’t. |
| he/ she/ it | ||||
Untuk subjek orang pertama I dan we, kita dapat menggunakan shall, sedangkan untuk subjek lainnya (you, they, he, she, it), kita hanya menggunakan will.
Contoh tambahan:
| (a) | By the time you finish the work, I will have been waiting for you for 2 hours. |
| (b) | When you reach that position in the company, you will have been working there for 10 years. |
| (c) | In two years’ time we will have been working on the project for 5 years. |
| (d) | On the day he gets married, he will have been living alone for 30 years. |
| (e) | Before she sings a song, the band will have been playing for a half hour. |
| (f) | On August 17 next year, they will have been celebrating their wedding anniversary for 45 times. |
THE FUTURE IN THE PAST,
THE PAST IN THE FUTURE
‘the future in the past’ is an English sentence that shows a future activity that happened in the past. Usually this sentence is used to report what someone said.
the formula:
He said that subject + would + infinitive
Examples:
| (a) | He said that he would tell her the secret. |
| (b) | They said that they would come late. |
| (c) | We said that we would not do it. |
Some verbs like ‘say’ are: announce, explain, reply, think, shout (see unit 60, page 250 on ‘noun clauses’ and unit 61, page 256 on ‘indirect speech’ in this book.)
‘the future in the past’ can also be expressed using:
| (1) | subject + was/were going to + infinitive | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | subject + was/were to + infinitive | ||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | subject + was/were + verb + ing | ||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | subject + was/were about to + infinitive | ||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | subject + was/were about to + infinitive | ||||
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Examples:
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| (6) | subject + would have + the past participle | ||||
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Examples:
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| (7) | subject + would have + been + verb + ing | ||||
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Examples:
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Examples:
| (a) | By three o’clock the lecture will have been over. |
| (b) | Next year they will have studied English for three years. |
SO + ADJECTIVE/ADVERBS (THAT...),
SUCH + NOUN PHRASE (THAT...)
| (1) | SO + ADJECTIVE | ||||||
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'so' means very. 'so good' means very good. |
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Examples:
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| (2) | SO + ADJECTIVE (THAT)... | ||||||
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‘so’ is used to emphasize the degree of something by stating the consequnce of it. In informal form, 'that' can be omitted. |
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Examples:
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| (3) | SO + ADVERB | ||||||
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‘so’ mean 'very'. ‘so quickly’ means 'very quickly'. |
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Examples:
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| (4) | SO + ADVERB (THAT)... | ||||||
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‘so’ is used to emphasize the degree of something by stating the consequnce of it. In informal form, 'that' can be omitted. |
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Examples:
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There are also constructions:
SO + ADJECTIVE + a + NOUN PHRASE + (AS SOMEBODY/ SOMETHING)
Examples:
| (a) | It is so cute a baby. |
| (b) | It is so fast a car as a train. |
| (c) | He is not so slow a beginner as the other beginner student. |
‘such’ is followed by a noun. The noun that follows 'such' can be either a countable noun or an uncountable noun.
| (1) | SUCH + NOUN PHRASE | ||||||||
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‘such’ has the meaning of 'of the kind already mentioned'. ‘such weather’ means 'weather of the kind already mentioned'. |
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Examples:
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| (2) | SUCH + NOUN PHRASE + THAT.... | ||||||
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‘such... that’ is used to emphasize the degree of something by stating the consequence of it. |
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Examples:
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VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS:
Teach me English, Teach English to me,
Make me a cake, Make a cake for me
Examples:
|
(a) |
The teacher subject |
teaches verb |
the students object |
English. object |
| (b) | The teacher
subject |
teaches
verb |
English
object |
to
to |
the students.
object |
Which of the two sentences above is correct?
Both sentences above are correct because there are types of verbs in English that can use both sentence patterns above.
Since there are two objects, we usually name them direct object and indirect object. Direct object is usually the one that is directly affected by the verb. In this case, inanimate object is the direct object, while animate object is the indirect object.
How do we study this type of sentence?
This type of sentence occurs depending on the type of verb used. To find out, we can check it in an English dictionary.
Here are some verbs that use these sentence patterns.
verb + object + object and verb + object + to + object:
award, bring, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, read, sell send, show, take, tell, throw, write
Examples:
| (a) | He gives me some money. | ⇔ | He gives some money to me. |
| (b) | She wrote me a letter. | ⇔ | She wrote a letter to me. |
| (c) | They showed him the book. | ⇔ | They showed the book to him. |
Examples:
| (a) | She
subject |
wishes
verb |
me
object |
a Merry Christmas
object |
A verb type like 'wish' can only be used in sentence pattern B (a) with the two objects above. So we cannot say:
She wishes a Merry Christmas to me.
Here are some verbs that only use the verb + object + object sentence pattern:
allow, ask, charge, cost, envy, forgive, guarantee, permit, save
Examples:
| (a) | I allow myself a glass of beer every day. |
| (b) | He asked me a question. |
Examples:
| (b) | He
subject |
recommended
verb |
the book
object |
to
to |
me.
object |
Types of verbs like 'recommend' can only be used in sentence pattern C (b) with the two objects above. So we cannot say:
He recommended me this book.
Here are some types of verbs that use this sentence pattern.
verb + object + to + object:
admit, announce, dedicate, demonstrate, describe, devote, dispense, distribute, entrust, explain, introduce, mention, point out, prove, relate, remember, remit, repeat, report, reveal, say, state, submit,
Examples:
| (a) | He admitted it to the police. |
| (b) | The teacher announced the results of the test to the students. |
| (b) | I
subject |
made
verb |
a cake
object |
for
for |
you.
object |
Types of verbs like 'make' are used with this sentence pattern:
verb + object + for + object
Here are some verbs that can be used with this sentence pattern.
verb + object + for + object:
answer, book, build, buy, cash, catch, choose, cook, do, fetch, find, fix, get, make, order, pour, prescribe, save, win.
Examples:
| (a) | He answered the question for me. |
| (b) | She has bought a ticket for her mother. |
Verbs such as book, build, buy, cash, catch, choose, cook, do, fetch, find, fix, get, make, order, pour and save above can also be used with sentence types like in B (a) above, namely: verb + object + object.
Examples:
| I
subject |
made
verb |
you
object |
a cake
object |
additional examples:
| (a) | We will buy you a car. |
| (b) | Please cash me the cheque/check. |
We cannot say: I made a cake to you.
QUESTION TAGS,
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
‘Question tags’ are phrases such as isn't it?, will it? which are placed at the end of a statement to ask a question or ask for agreement.
Examples:
| (a) | He won’t be late, will he? |
| (b) | I don’t know you, do I? |
| (c) | He’s here, isn’t he? |
| (a) | A declarative sentence ends with a comma. |
| (b) | If the intonation of this question tag is flat, then the speaker thinks that his statement is true and expects a yes answer. |
| (c) | If the intonation is a questioning tone, then the speaker is still unsure about his own statement and is asking for approval from the person he is talking to. |
| (d) | If the statement is negative, the question tag is positive, and if the statement is positive, the question tag is negative. |
THE SUMMARY OF QUESTION TAG USAGE
| (1) | the simple present tense | ||||||||
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| (2) | the simple past tense | ||||||||
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| (3) | the present continuous tense | ||||||||
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| (4) | the simple future tense | ||||||||
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| (5) | the past continuous tense | ||||||||
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| (6) | the present perfect tense | ||||||||
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| (7) | sentences with the modal auxiliary verbs | ||||||||
|
SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES
How do you form a question tag that uses the words am, there, this, that, these, those, everything, everybody/everyone, nothing, nobody, let's, don't?
| (1) | am |
For sentences that use 'am', the question tag used is 'am I not?' or 'aren't I?'
Examples:
| (a) | I’m early today, am I not? |
| (b) | I’m not late, am I? |
| (c) | I’m going to lose, am I not? |
‘am I not?’ is used in written language, but in speaking we usually use 'aren’t I?'
Examples:
| (a) | I’m good looking, arent’ I? |
| (b) | I’m going to win, aren’t I? |
| (2) | there |
For usage with 'there', there is no change. We still use the word 'there' to form the question tag.
Examples:
| (a) | There hasn’t been any rain for a long time, has there? |
| (b) | There’s a football game tonight, isn’t there? |
| (3) | that, this, these, those |
For 'this' and 'that', we use 'it' as the question tag, while for the plural forms 'these' and 'those', we use the word 'they'.
Examples:
| (a) | This is a good movie, isn’t it? |
| (b) | This isn’t what we have wanted, is it? |
| (c) | That’s good, isn’t it? |
| (d) | That’s not right, is it? |
| (e) | These are good books, aren’t they? |
| (f) | Those aren’t expensive, are they? |
| (4) | everything, everybody/everyone, nothing, nobody |
‘everything’ uses the question tag ‘it’ and everybody/everyone/someone / no one (words that replace people) use the question tag ‘they’. For words with negative connotations such as 'nothing', 'nobody', we use the positive ‘question tag’.
| (a) | Everything will be fine, won’t it? |
| (b) | Everybody will go, won’t they? |
| (c) | Everyone went home, didn’t they? |
| (d) | Nobody came to the party, did they? |
| (e) | Nothing is the matter, is it? |
| (5) | Let’s (Let us), Let me |
‘The question tag’ for 'let’s' using 'shall we?'
Examples:
| (a) | Let’s go home now, shall we? |
| (b) | Let’s do it, shall we? |
| (c) | Let’s not do it, shall we? |
The ‘question tag’ for 'let me' uses 'will you?'
Examples:
| (a) | Let me have a look, will you? |
| (b) | Let me help, will you? |
| (6) | Don’t |
The ‘question tag’ for 'don’t' is 'will you?' For positive sentences, we can use 'will you?' or 'won’t you?'
Examples:
| (a) | Don’t do it, will you? |
| (b) | Don’t close the window, will you? |
| (c) | Please come in, will you? |
| (d) | Please be patient, will you? |
| (e) | Shut the door, won’t you? |
To ask someone else to do something, we use 'will you?', 'would you?', 'can you?', 'can't you?' or 'could you?', whereas 'won't you' is used to invite people to do something.
Examples:
| (a) | Turn off the light, can’t you? |
| (b) | Call me tonight, would you? |
| (7) | I will |
The ‘question tag’ 'shall I?' is used with declarative sentences that start with 'I will' and is used to confirm someone’s agreement with our proposal.
Examples:
| (a) | I’ll go with you, shall I? |
| (b) | I’ll join the party, shall I? |
Often when we are asked a negative question, we will answer yes in the wrong way as below.
Examples:
| (a) | Haven't you eaten? Yes, I haven't eaten. |
| (b) | Isn't it fun in here? Yes, it is. |
We must answer sentence (a) with No, I haven't eaten or Yes, I have eaten and sentence (b) with No, it's not fun here or Yes, it's fun here. In principle, even if asked with a negative sentence, if the reality is no, we still answer no. Likewise, if the reality is yes, we still answer yes.
Examples:
| (a) | Haven’t you eaten ? Yes, I have atau No, I haven’t. |
| (b) | Isn’t it nice here? Yes, it is atau No, it isn’t. |
| (c) | Can’t we do it now? Yes, you can atau No, you can’t. |
Negative interrogative sentences are used if the questioner:
| (a) | expects a no (a negative answer). |
| (b) | having a feeling of surprise because of something that should have been done but has not been done or was not done as in sentence (a) above. |
| (c) | We can also say: Have you not eaten?, Is it not nice?, Can we not do it? This form of sentence is a very formal sentence. |
ADVERBIALS OF PURPOSE, MEANS, INSTRUMENT
‘Adverbials of purpose’ are adverbial phrases of purpose, namely adverbial phrases that tell us what our purpose is in doing something.
Examples:
| (a) | I went to school (in order) to study. |
| (b) | He came here (in order) to see me. |
| (c) | They went to the market (in order) to buy some vegetables. |
| (1) | The phrase in order is optional (it can be omitted or not). |
| (2) | The negative form of in order to is in order not to. Examples: He didn’t attend the meeting in order not to meet her. |
| (3) | If the subject of the infinitive is not the same as the subject of the sentence, we use 'for + subject'. Examples: He picked me up in order for me not to take the bus. |
Untuk menanyakan tujuan dari seseorang melakukan sesuatu, kita bertanya dengan kata why? (mengapa?) atau what... for? (untuk apa?).
Examples:
| (a) | Why do you go to school? |
| What do you go to school for? | |
| (b) | Why did he come here? |
| What did he come here for? | |
| (c) | Why did they go to the market? |
| What did they go to the market for? |
We can answer the above questions in two ways: with a verb like the example above He came here (in order) to see me.
We can also use the combination 'for + noun phrase' as an indication of purpose:
Examples:
They went to the market for some vegetables. (for + noun phrase)
‘so that’ + a positive clause can replace 'in order to' to state a purpose, while 'so that + a negative clause' replaces 'in order not to'.
Examples:
| (a) | I save my money in the bank so that I (can/will) get the interest. |
| (b) | He picked me up so that I didn’t/wouldn’t have to take the bus. |
| (c) | He always brings his dictionary with him so that he can look up new words immediately. |
‘Adverbials of means’ are adverbial that tell us what means of transportation or communication we use to do something.
Examples:
| (a) | He came here by bus. |
| (b) | They went by plane. |
| (c) | He sent the letter by airmail. |
| (d) | They usually communicate by telephone. |
| (a) | For transportation by vehicle, we say by train, by car, by plane, by bus, but for walking, we say on foot. |
| (b) | For communication, we say by telephone, by radio, by facsimile. |
| (c) | Note that we do not use the plural form of nouns such as |
‘Adverbials of instrument’ are adverbial phrases that tell us what tool is used to perform an action.
Examples:
| (a) | He opened the door with a key. |
| (b) | They shot the man with a gun. |
| (c) | He answered my question with a smile. |
‘by + verb + ing’ is an adverbial phrase used to express how an action is done:
Examples:
| (a) | How did he answer the question? He answered it by shaking his head. |
| (b) | How did she find him? She found him by asking his friend. |
| (c) | How did you learn English? I learned it by watching films on TV. |
‘Prepositions’ are words like on, in, at, by, and of which are used with nouns and placed in front of the nouns. So, any verb placed after a preposition must be in its noun form or any verb that follows a preposition must be in teh form of a gerund. To change a verb into a noun we can add ‘-ing’ to the end of the verb. That is why verbs placed after a preposition must end in -ing.
Examples:
| (1) | by mistake |
| (because of mistakes) | |
| (2) | by chance |
| (because of chance) | |
| (3) | by six o’clock |
| (not later than six o’clock) | |
| (4) | by this time |
| (not later than this time) | |
| (5) | by him |
| (past him) | |
| (6) | by day, by night |
| (during the day, during the night) | |
| (7) | by my watch |
| (according to my watch) | |
| (8) | by 20% |
| (to the amount of 20%) | |
| (9) | by law, by the rules |
| (according to the law, according to the rules) | |
| (10) | by the day, by the month |
| (daily, monthly) | |
| (11) | by God |
| (an expression of strong feeling and solemn promises) | |
| (12) | by the metre/meter, by the dozen |
| (indicating a standard quantity) | |
| (13) | by the hand |
| (indicating a part of the body touched) | |
| (14) | by the back door |
| (passing through the back door) | |
| (15) | by cheque/check, by cash, by credit card |
| (by using cheques/checks, by using cash, by using a credit card) |
VERB + TO + INFINITIVE
VERB + VERB + ING
In English sentences, there are sentence forms that use
verb + to + infinitive.
Examples:
| (a) | Michael hopes to see you. |
| (b) | She wants to do it now. |
| (c) | He forgot to do it |
How do we learn this?
The form of such sentences depends on the main verb. The main verb in sentence (a) above is hope. The verb hope can indeed be used in the above way. We can see the use of the verb in the English dictionary. The dictionary tells us this.
Examples:
hope is written in a dictionary as:
hope [V. to inf]. It means: hope + to + infinitive
Some verbs used with the above form are:
afford, agree, aim, arrange, attempt, care, choose, decide, deserve, desire, expect, fail, forget, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare , pretend, promise, refuse, struggle, tend, threaten, want, wish, would like
In English there are also sentences that have the form:
verb + verb + ing.
Examples:
| (a) | They enjoy singing. |
| (b) | The maid has finished washing the dishes. |
How do we learn this?
Once again, we have to look up the word in the dictionary. 'enjoy' is written in the dictionary as:
enjoy v [+obj] [+ v.ing]. It means: enjoy + verb + ing.
Some verbs used with the above form are:
admit, appreciate (usually followed by being + the past participle)], avoid , can’t help, can’t stand, consider, delay, deny, discuss, dislike, escape, finish, get through, give up, imagine, insist on, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practise/practice, put off, quit, recommend, report, resent, resist, risk, suggest, tolerate
There are also verbs that can use both forms above with more or less the same meaning.
Examples:
| (a) | It started to rain. |
| (b) | It started raining. |
Some verbs used in the above way are:
begin, bother, cease, commence, continue, dread, endure, go on, hate, intend, like, love, mean, need, prefer, regret, start, try
Pay attention to the following sentences which use the verbs 'remember' and 'stop'. These two verbs have different meanings as in the example below.
Examples:
| (a) | I remember doing it. (I remember that I did it.) |
| Meaning: I did it first. Then, I remember it. |
| (b) | I remember to do it. (I remember that I have to do it.) |
| Meaning: I remember it. Then, I do it.. |
| (c) | I stopped to smoke. (I stopped. Then, I smoked.) |
| Meaning: I stopped first. Then I smoked. |
| (d) | I stopped smoking. (I smoked. Then I stopped,) |
| Meaning: I smoked first. Then, I stopped.. |
| (1) | ‘verb + to infinitive’ usually expresses something that will happen, while verb + verb + ing usually expresses something that has happened. | ||||
| (2) | The negative form of 'gerund' is 'not + gerund' and the negative form of 'to infinitive' is 'not + to infinitive'. Examples:
|
This construction is a development of the verb + to + verb construction.
Examples:
| (a) | I want him to go. |
| (b) | They advised me to sue him. |
| (1) | Between 'want' and 'to go' we can insert 'him' ('him' is optional because the verb want can use an object pronoun or not), and between 'advised' and 'to sue' we can insert the object pronoun ‘me’ because the verb advised always requires an object (an object is a must). |
| (2) | In both sentences above, the subject of 'go' is 'him', not 'I', while the subject of 'sue' is 'me', not 'they'. |
The type of verb 'advise' that uses the 'to infinitive' must use 'a noun phrase'. So, we cannot say: 'They advised to sue him', but we can say 'They advised something'.
Kata kerja seperti advise (verb + noun phrase + to + infinitive) adalah: allow (memperbolehkan), challenge (menantang), convince (meyakinkan), direct (mengarahkan), enable (memungkinkan), expect (mengharapkan), forbid (melarang), force (memaksa), get (menyuruh), instruct (memerintahkan), invite (mengundang), motivate (memotivasi), order (menyuruh), permit (mengizinkan), persuade (membujuk),
prefer (lebih menyukai), remind (mengingatkan), request (meminta),
require (memerlukan), teach (mengajar), tell (memberitahu),
urge (mendesak), warn (memperingatkan).
Kata kerja seperti want yaitu kata kerja yang dapat menggunakan noun phrase dan dapat juga tidak adalah: ask (meminta), beg (memohon) (beg + to be + the past participle), help (membantu).
The verbs that can be used in the form of verb + noun phrase + infinitive above are verbs related to the five senses
(verbs of perception) seperti feel, hear, listen to, observe, see, watch dan help, let, make.
Examples: We saw him do that.
| (1) |
Especially for verbs related to the five senses such as feel, hear, listen to, observe, see, watch, we can use the form: verb + noun phrase + verb + ing. (I saw him doing that.) I saw him doing that means the work is finished, whereas I saw him do that means the work is finished. Sentences that use verb + ing emphasize that the work is not finished.
|
| (2) | Specifically for the verb help, we can say ‘I help him (to) do that’. ‘to’ is optional. |
PREPOSITIONS: AT, IT, ON,
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
‘Prepositions’ are words like at, in and on that are used with nouns and are usually placed in front of the noun. ‘Prepositional phrases’ are phrases that start with a preposition.|
Examples:
in the classroom, on Saturday, at home, in December
Prepositional Phrases functioning as Adjective Phrases
‘Prepositional phrases’ can function as ‘adjective phrases’, namely phrases that describe nouns.
Examples:
| (a) | The book on the table is mine. |
| (b) | The television in the room is expensive. |
| (c) | The student from America has been here for two weeks. |
| (d) | The car on sale was made in China. |
From the examples above, we can conclude that prepositional phrases are placed right after the noun being described.
| (1) | ‘at’ is used to indicate a point (in, on): building, workplace, place of study, someone’s place. |
| Examples: at the airport, at the cinema, at the corner, at home, at work, at the hotel, at the hospital, at my friend’s, at the baker’s, at Jim’s, at the window, at the traffic lights. |
| (2) | ‘at’ is used to indicate a point in time, an amount of time, and an age. |
| Examples: at five o’clock, at 6.15, at this hour, at dawn, at midnight, at Christmas, at the moment, at the time of leaving, at night, at 50 (age), at 34 (age), at weekends, at the weekend, at the same time, at present, at the end of the show, at the beginning of January |
| (3) | ‘at’ is used to indicate direction, distance, price level, speed level, temperature and sound level. | ||||||||||||
|
| (1) | 'in' is used to say something is within the boundaries of something and is used with the names of countries, continents, big cities and oceans. |
Examples:
| (a) | in the kitchen, in the garage, in the bedroom, in the park, in the pocket, in Asia, in the car, in the world, in the magazine |
| (b) | in Germany, in Indonesia, in Jakarta, in Paris, in Bandung, in Singapore, in the Atlantic (Ocean), in the Pacific (Ocean) |
| (c) | in her mouth, in his car, in bed, in the swimming pool |
| (2) | ‘in’ is used to indicate a period and length of time. |
Examples:
| (a) | in February, in 2004, in Winter, in the morning, in the afternoon, in the night, in the past, in the future, in four weeks, in an hour, in a week, in a year, in a few minutes / days / months / years |
| (b) | in his youth, in her old age |
| (3) | ‘in’ is used to express in what way something is done. |
Examples:
| (a) | speak in French / in a few words, do it in secret / public / fun |
| (b) | write in ink / pencil / code, pay in cash, talk in a soft voice |
| (4) | ‘in’ is used to indicate occupation and field of study. |
Examples:
| (a) | in the army, in the air force, in the navy, in the police |
| (b) | in business / insurance / journalism / medicine / photography / politics |
| (c) | in plastics / paper / property / furniture / arts and crafts |
| (5) | 'in' is used to indicate a condition. |
Examples:
in danger, in a hurry, in tears, in doubt, in bad health, in love, in a mess, in anger, in a rage, in difficulties, in debt, in happiness, in poverty, in terror, in jeopardy
| (6) | 'in' is used to express how someone is dressed. |
Examples:
in red, in black, in silk, in wool, in leather, in a fur coat, in a long dress, in a blouse, in a business suit, in a dress suit, in uniform, in a jacket, in a bathing suit, in a space suit
| ‘on’ is used to indicate a position above something else, touching or forming part of a surface. |
Examples
on the grass, on the wall, on the table, on your nose, on the head, on page one, on the second floor, sit on a chair, ride on a bicycle, lean on me, stand on one’s foot
| (2) | ‘on’ is used to indicate taking a large public vehicle or to indicate a journey. |
Examples:
| (a) | on the plane, on the bus, on the train, on foot, on horseback |
| (b) | on a journey, on a trip, on my way, on a tour, on a cruise, on holiday, on a safari |
| (3) | 'on' is used with an object pronoun to say someone is carrying something. |
Examples:
| (a) | Have you got any money on you? |
| (b) | Drinks are on me. (Aku yang traktir). |
| (4) | ‘on’ is used to indicate days and dates. |
Examples:
on Sundays, on September twenty-third, on the first of October, on the morning of Wednesday, on his birthday, on Christmas, on holiday, on this occasion, on a rainy day, on that day, on the day of his wedding
| (5) | ‘on’ is used to express immediately after. We can also use upon to replace on. Note that ‘on’ is used in front of verb + ing or noun. |
Examples:
| (a) | On/Upon arriving/arrival, I took a taxi. |
| (b) | On/Upon thinking about the idea, I felt uncomfortable. |
| (6) | ‘on’ is used to state a topic about something in detail/depth. If it is only a glance/not in depth, use 'about'. |
Examples:
| (a) | a book on grammar, a lecture/an essay on economics |
| (b) | to speak/write on the history of Indonesia, to lecture on/in literature |
| (7) | ‘on’ is used to express an activity and condition. |
Examples:
on sale, on special offer, on business, on purpose, on leave, on strike, on a diet, on fire
| (8) | ‘on’ is used to indicate 'close to'. |
Examples:
a house on the coast, a village on the border, an apartment on Sudirman Street
| (9) | ‘on’ is used to indicate a telephone number that can be contacted. |
Examples:
Call me on/at 0815 1131 3838. (Use at in American English.)
| (10) | ‘on’ is used to express how something is done. |
Examples:
play a tune on the piano, speak on the phone / on the radio, broadcast on the TV/radio, hear it on the radio
| (11) | ‘on’ is used to indicate 'supported by' or 'living off of'. |
Examples:
live on vegetables, live on one’s pension/savings, live on medicine, live on a low salary, manage on a low salary, run on petrol/gas
| (12) | ‘on’ is used to indicate direction (towards). |
Examples:
on my left, on the right, march on the city, an attack on him, fifteen years old going on sixteen
| (13) | ‘on’ is used to express something that happens repeatedly. |
Examples:
suffer disaster on disaster, defeat on defeat, illness on illness, loss on loss
| (14) | ‘on’ is used to indicate that someone is a member of a group. |
Examples:
| (a) | How many people are on the committee? |
| (b) | Have you ever served on a jury? |
PREPOSITIONS:
POSITION, DIRECTION
|
(1) |
‘above’ berarti higher than something (di atas), lawan kata dari below.
|
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|
(2) |
‘across’ (British) berarti from one side to the other side (di seberang/menyeberangi) across from (American); opposite.
|
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| (3) |
‘along’ berarti from one end to the other end of something (dari ujung yang satu ke ujung yang lain, sepanjang).
|
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| (4) |
‘among/amongst’ berarti surrounded by somebody/something (di antara).
|
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| (5) |
‘behind’ berarti at or towards the back, on the other side of something, always hidden (di belakang), lawan kata dari in front of (di depan).
|
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| (6) |
‘below’ berarti at or to a lower level/position/rank than somebody/something (di/ke bawah), lawan kata dari above.
|
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| (7) |
‘between’ berarti in or into the space separating two or more objects or people (di antara).
|
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| (8) |
‘down’ berarti from a higher point to a lower point of something (turun), lawan kata dari up.
|
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| (9) |
‘from’ berarti (showing a starting point in place) beginning at, biasanya digunakan dengan to.
|
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| (10) |
‘in front of’ berarti in the position directly before (di depan), lawan kata dari behind.
|
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| (11) |
into/in’ berarti to the inside of (ke dalam), lawan kata dari out of.
|
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| (12) |
‘near (to)’ berarti not far from, close to (tidak jauh dari; dekat).
|
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| (13) |
‘next to’ berarti in the closest place to (di samping).
|
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| (14) |
‘off’ berarti down or away from a position (jatuh atau lepas dari).
|
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| (15) |
‘opposite (to)’ berarti facing (menghadap, di hadapan).
|
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| (16) |
‘out of’ berarti away from the inside to the open air or outside (keluar dari); not in a place (keluar), lawan kata dari into.
|
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| (17) |
‘over’ berarti directly above, higher than but not touching (di atas), from one side of something to the other, lawan kata dari under.
|
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| (18) |
‘past’ berarti from one side to the other of something (melewati/lewat).
|
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| (19) |
‘through’ berarti passing from one end of an opening, a channel, a passage to the other (melalui, melewati/lewat sesuatu dari ujung yang satu ke ujung yang lain).
|
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| (20) |
‘to’ berarti in the direction of something or towards something (ke arah sesuatu), lawan kata dari from.
|
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| (21) |
‘towards’ (British), toward (American) berarti in the direction of, not reaching (menuju, ke arah).
|
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| (22) |
‘under’ berarti in or to a lower place than; directly below (di bawah), lawan kata dari over.
|
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| (23) |
‘up’ berarti to or in a higher or rising position (ke atas, ke tempat yang lebih tinggi) lawan kata dari down.
|
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| (24) |
‘round’ (British), around (American/British) berarti with a circular movement about a central point (di sekeliling).
|
ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION
'adjective' + preposition is an adjective followed by a certain preposition. In other words, the adjective has a certain preposition that follows it if the sentence used has an object.
Examples:
| (a) | He is tired of doing this. |
| (b) | She is worried about me. |
| (c) | I am interested in music. |
| (a) | If a sentence does not have an object, we can say He is tired, She is worried, I am interested. |
| (b) | After a preposition, we always place a noun phrase (as an object) according to the definition of a preposition, namely words such as 'of, in, on, at' which are used with nouns and placed in front of the noun. |
Here are some adjectives that are used with certain prepositions:
| (1) | at | ||||||||||||||||||
|
| (2) | about | ||||||||||||||||
|
| (3) | for | ||||||||||
|
| (4) | from |
| different [(from/to) sth; different (than sth) (American)] (not the same) |
| (5) | in |
| interested [in sb or (doing) sth] (giving a lot of attention to someone or something because you want to know more about him/her or it) |
| (6) | of (I/ we/ he/ she/ they/ you + be + adjective + of somebody) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
| (7) | of (It + be + adjective + of somebody) | ||||||||||||||||
|
| (8) | on | ||||
|
| (9) | to | ||||||||||
|
| (10) | with | ||||||||||||||||||||
|
How do we learn this?
We can check the adjective in the dictionary. In the dictionary, we get the following information:
| (a) | typical adj [+ of sb/sth] |
| (b) | keen adj [+ on sb/sth] |
| sb = somebody, sth = something |
VERB + PREPOSITION
Some verbs also have a fixed preposition if the verb has an object.
Examples:
|
(a) |
He is waiting for me at the restaurant. |
| (b) | We are looking at them. |
| (c) | He has been suffering from this for a long time. |
| (a) | If the verb does not have an object, we can say He is waiting, He has been suffering, while for the verb look at, we must use an object because the verb look at is a transitive verb, that is a verb that needs an object in order to form a sentence which is good. |
| (b) | Verbs that do not necessarily require an object are called intransitive verbs. |
Some verbs that have certain prepositions are:
| (1) | about |
| care (about sth), dream (about/of doing sth); dream (about sth), hear (about sth), read (about sth), talk (about sth), think (about sth) |
| (2) | against |
| fight (against a disease), vote (against sb/sth) |
| (3) | at |
| aim (at sth), glance at sb/sth, laugh at sb/sth, look (at sb/sth), shout at sb, smile (at sb/sth), stare (at sb/sth) |
| (4) | between |
| distinguish (between) X and Y, distinguish X from Y |
| (5) | for |
| apply (to sb) (for sth), ask (sb) for sth, care for sth, hope (for sth), leave (for a place), long for sth, pray (for sb/sth), search [(for) sth/ for sb], vote (for sb/sth), wait (for sb/sth) |
| (6) | from |
| escape (from sb/sth), result (from sth), suffer (from pain, discomfort, sorrow) |
| (7) | in |
| believe in sb / (doing) sth (percaya pada), confide in sb (percaya pada), join in (sth/doing sth) (ikut serta dalam), participate (in sth) (berpartisipasi dalam), persevere (in/at/with sth) (tekun dalam), specialize (in sth) (mengkhususkan diri pada), succeed (in sth/doing sth) (berhasil dalam) |
| (8) | of |
| accuse sb (of sth) (menuduh seseorang karena), approve (of sb/sth) (setuju dengan), complain (of a pain) (mengeluhkan rasa sakit), consist of sth (terdiri dari), die (of sth) (meninggal karena), dream (of doing sth) (memikirkan untuk melakukan sesuatu), hear of sb/sth (mendengar tentang), think of sth/sb (berpendapat tentang) |
| (9) | on |
| concentrate [on (doing) sth], depend on sb/sth, insist (on sth), live on sth, operate (on sb), rely on/upon sb/sth |
|
(10) |
to |
| apologise/apologize (to sb), happen to sb/sth, listen (to sb/sth), object (to sb/sth; to doing sth), speak (to sb); speak (with sb) (American), subscribe (to sth) |
| (11) | with |
| consult (with) sb, deal with sb/sth |
Some verbs that require an object in the form of verb + ing (gerund):
approve of, count on, get through, forget about, insist on, keep on, look forward to, think about, think of
| (a) | She insisted on helping us. |
| (b) | We look forward to receiving an early reply. |
How do we learn this?
We can check the verb in the dictionary.
die v [+ of sth] die of cancer/hunger/grief
sth = something
TWO-WORD VERBS
A ‘two-word verb’, also called a two-part verb, is a verb combined with a preposition or adverbial particle that contains a single meaning.
Some of these two-word verbs can be separated (separable) if they have an object and if the object is replaced with an object pronoun or if the object is short (me, him, her, it, us, you, them), some cannot be separated (non-separable), and some do not require an object.
‘two-word verbs’ that can be separated by an object pronoun are a combination of verb + adverbial particle
What are adverbial particles? ‘Adverbial particles’ are words placed after a verb to indicate position and direction of movement.
Beberapa adverbial particles adalah above, about, across, ahead, along, (a)round, aside, away, back, up, down, on, off, out, in, back, away, over.
Examples of separable two-word verbs:
| (a) | He called up the doctor. (He called him up.) |
| (b) | Please look up the new words. (Please look them up.) |
| (c) | Turn on the lights. (Turn them on.) |
| (d) | Take off your glasses. (Take them off.) |
The verbs 'call up, look up, turn on, take off' can be separated by the object that follows them if the object is replaced by an object pronoun (me, him, her, it, us, you, them) or if the object is very short such as He called the doctor up.
Examples of two-word verbs that can be separated by object pronouns (separable two-word verbs):
| 1. | break down the door | break it down |
| (smash and destroy) | ||
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| 2. | call of the meeting | call it off |
| (cancel) | ||
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| 3. | cross out the number | cross it out |
| (draw a line through) | ||
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| 4. | do over the house | do it over |
| (redecorate) | ||
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| 5. | Don't put off your work | Don't put it off |
| (postpone) | ||
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| 6. | fiure out the problem | figure it out |
| (understand) | ||
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| 7. | fill in the form | fill it in |
| (add the necessary information on) | ||
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| 8. | fill out the form | fill it out |
| (complete) | ||
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| 9. | find out | find it out |
| (discover) | ||
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| 10. | give back the book | give them back |
| (return) | ||
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| 11. | give up smoking | give it up |
| (stop) | ||
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| 12. | hand in your homework | hand it in |
| (submit) | ||
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| 13. | hand out the paper | hand them out |
| (distribute) | ||
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| 14. | hold off a decision | hold it off |
| (delay) | ||
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| 15. | keep of the grass | keep it off |
| (stay away from) | ||
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| 16. | leave out number 1 | leave it out |
| (omit) | ||
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| 17. | look over the notes | look them over |
| (examine) | ||
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| 18. | make up a story | make it up |
| (invent) | ||
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| 19. | pick up the pencil | pick it up |
| (take, especially with the fingers) | ||
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| 20. | put away the chlothes | put them away |
| (return to their proper place) | ||
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| 21. | put on your clothes | put them on |
| (wear) | ||
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| 22. | put out the fire | put it out |
| (extinguish) | ||
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| 23. | start over a new life | start it over |
| (begin again) | ||
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| 24. | talk over the matter | talk it over |
| (discuss) | ||
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| 25. | tear down the building | tear it down |
| (destroy) | ||
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| 26. | tear up the paper | tear it up |
| (tear the paper into a lot of pieces) | ||
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| 27. | throw away the rubbish | throw it away |
| (discard) | ||
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| 28. | try on this shirt | try it on |
| (put on something before buying) | ||
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| 29. | turn down the volume | turn it down |
| (decrease) | ||
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| 30. | turn off the radio | turn it off |
| (stop) | ||
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| 31. | turn up the volume | turn it up |
| (increase) | ||
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| 32. | wake up the children | wake them up |
| (stop sleeping) | ||
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| 33. | write down the answer | write it down |
| (put down in writing) | ||
There are also ‘two-word verbs’ which are a combination of verb + adverbial particle which do not have an object.
examples of two-word verbs tath do not have an object
| 1. | hang up | |
| (put down the receiver) | ||
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| 2. | come out | |
| (appear) | ||
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| 3. | eat in | |
| (eat at home) | ||
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| 4. | eat out | |
| (eat in a restaurant) | ||
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| 5. | get up | |
| (stop sleeping) | ||
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| 6. | pass away | |
| (die) | ||
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| 7. | set out | |
| (begin, leave from a place) | ||
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| 8. | show up | |
| (appear) | ||
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| 9. | turn up | |
| (arrive) | ||
‘Two-word verbs’ that cannot be separated by an object pronoun are a combination of verb + preposition.
Examples of non-separable two-word verbs:
| (a) | I will call on Jack and James. (I will call on them.) |
| (b) | You take after your father. (You take after him.) |
| (c) | I will see about the matter. (I will see about it.) |
The verbs call on, take after, see about cannot be separated from the object that follows them even though the object is replaced with an object pronoun (me, him, her, it, us, you, them). We can't say I will call them on, You take him after, I will see it about.
Examples of two-word verbs that cannot be separted by an object pronoun
(non-separable):
| 1. | bring about the problem | bring about it |
| (cause to happen) | ||
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| 2. | call on my friend | call on him |
| (visit) | ||
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| 3. | catch up with her class | catch up with it |
| (reach somebody who is ahead) | ||
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| 4. | drop out of high school | drop out of it |
| (leave) | ||
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| 5. | get along with the students | get along with them |
| (live and work harmoniously) | ||
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| 6. | get in the car | get in it |
| (enter) | ||
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| 7. | get over the stomach-ache | get over it |
| (recover from) | ||
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| 8. | get through with my work | get through with it |
| (finish) | ||
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| 9. | go about his homework | go about it |
| (be busy with) | ||
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| 10. | go after the job | go after it |
| (try to obtain) | ||
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| 11. | go over the lesson | go over it |
| (review) | ||
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| 12. | keep up with you sister | keep up with her |
| (progress at the same rate as) | ||
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| 13. | look after your mother | look after her |
| (take care of) | ||
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| 14. | look for the shoes | look for them |
| (search for) | ||
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| 15. | look into the matter | look into it |
| (investigate) | ||
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| 16. | pick on Garry | pick on him |
| (disturb) | ||
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| 17. | put up with his bad habit | put up with it |
| (tolerate) | ||
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| 18. | run across an old friend | run across him |
| (meet or find unexpectedly) | ||
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| 19. | run out of paper | run out of it |
| (exhaust the supply of) | ||
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| 20. | take after his mother | take after her |
| (resemble) | ||
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| 21. | watch out for the cars | watch out for them |
| (be careful with) | ||
How do we learn this?
A good dictionary will tell us about this. It says:
call on sb (esp Brit) make a short visit
| call sb/sth up (esp US) | (1) make a telephone call |
| (2) bring sth back to one’s mind; to recall sth |
THE PAST, THE PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
Pay attention to the following sentence:
| the present or the future time | the past | |||
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| subject + must/might/should/could + infinitive | | | | |
subject + must/might/should/could + have + the past participle | ||
| 1a. | They must be fourteen years old. | | | |
1b. | They must have been fourteen years old. |
| 2a. | They might do it. | | | |
2b. | They might have done it. |
| 3a. | They should stay (at) home. | | | |
3b. | They should have stayed (at) home. |
| 4a. | They could go boating. | | | |
4b. | They could have gone boating. |
| (1) | The past short forms of the modal auxiliaries 'must', might, should and could are must've, might've, should've, could've. |
| (2) | The negative forms are 'must not have, might not have, should not have (shouldn't have), could not have (couldn't have)'. |
| (3) | Note that there are no abbreviations for 'must not have' and 'might not have'. |
Explanation:
| 1a. | They must be fourteen years old. (the present) | |
| Meaning: | It is inferred that they are fourteen years old. | |
| 1b. | They must have been fourteen years old. (the past) | |
| Meaning: | It is inferred that they were fourteen years old. | |
| 2a. | They might do it. | |
| Meaning: | Perhaps they do it. (Mereka mungkin melakukannya.) | |
| 2b. | They might have done it. | |
| Meaning: | Perhaps they did it. | |
| 3a. | They should stay (at) home. | |
| Meaning: | It is right and recommended that they stay (at) home. | |
| 3b. | They should have stayed at home. | |
| Meaning: | It was right and desirable for them to stay (at) home, but they didn’t. | |
| 4a. | They could go boating. | |
| Meaning: | It is possible, and they have the chance to go boating. | |
| 4b. | They could have gone boating. | |
| Meaning: | It was possible and they had the chance to go boating, but they didn’t. | |
an example in conversation form:
| (1) | Joni | : | Why didn’t George do his homework? |
| Maria | : | He could have been too busy. | |
| (2) | Joni | : | He didn’t pass the test. |
| Maria | : | He should have studied harder. | |
| (3) | Joni | : | They didn’t go boating yesterday. They had the opportunity to do so. |
| Maria | : | They could have gone if they really wanted to. | |
| (4) | Joni | : | When I met her, my heart beat faster. |
| Maria | : | It must have been love. | |
| (5) | Fortunately, a policeman came to us. If not, we might have been robbed. | ||
| (1) | So, to say that something might have happened in the past, we use 'might have'. |
| (2) | To express that something should or ought to have happened in the past, but did not happen, we use 'should have'. |
| (3) | To express a conclusion that something happened in the past, we use 'must have'. |
| (4) | To express that something might have happened in the past because there was an opportunity and ability to do it, but it didn't happen, we use 'could have'. |
| (5) | ‘should’ means 'would better' while 'should have' means 'something did not happen, but we wish it had happened'. |
Pay attention to the following sentences:
| the present or the future | the present progressive | |||
|
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| subject + must/might/should/could + infinitive |
| | | |
subject + must/might/should/could + be + verb + ing |
||
| 1a. | They must work hard. | | | |
1b. | They must be working hard |
| 2a. | They might do it. | | | |
2b. | They might be doing it. |
| 3a. | They should stay (at) home. | | | |
3b. | They should be staying (at) home. |
| 4a. | They could go home. | | | |
4b. | They could be going home. |
Penjelasan:
| 1b. | They must be working hard. |
| Meaning: It is inferred that they are working. | |
| 2b. | They might be doing it. |
| Meaning: Perhaps they are doing it. | |
| 3b. | They should be staying (at) home. |
| Meaning: It is right and desirable for them to be staying (at) home. | |
| 4b. | They could be going home. |
| Meaning: It is possible that they are going home because they have the chance of going home. |
| (1) | ‘might’ can be replaced with 'may'. |
| (2) | The level of certainty indicated by must is the greatest, 'may' the second, 'might' the third and 'could' the last. |
To express that something that happened in the past was still ongoing or unfinished when another event occurred, we use the continuous tense
Examples :
| the past | the past progressive | |||
|
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| subject + must/might/should/could + have + the past participle |
| | | |
subject + must/might/should/could + have been + verb + ing |
||
| 1a. | He must have done it. (It is inferred that he did it.) |
| | |
1b. | He must have been doing it. (It is inferred that he was doing it.) |
| 2a. | He might have done it. (Perhaps he did it.) |
| | |
2b. | He might have been doing it. (Perhaps he was doing it.) |
| 3a. | He should have done it. (It was right and desirable for him to do it but he didn’t.) |
| | |
3b. | He should have been doing it. (It was right and desirable for him to be doing it, but he wasn’t.) |
| 4a. | He could have done it. (It was possible that he did it as he had the chance to do so, but he didn’t.) |
| | |
4b. | He could have been doing it. (It was possible that he was doing it, as he had the chance to do so, but he wasn't.) |
Example sentences and explanations:
| (1) | What was he doing when you saw him? |
| When I saw him, he was not doing anything. | |
| He should have been studying. | |
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| (2) | What was he doing in his office when you visited him yesterday? |
| When I visited him yesterday, he was alone in his office. | |
| He must have been doing his work. | |
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| (3) | I know why you were still there at that time. |
| You might have been waiting for your girlfriend. | |
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| (4) | He wasn’t in the office. Where was he? |
| He must have been having lunch. | |
WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES
As we have discussed before, to understand English, we have to learn words, phrases, and clauses.
| (1) | A 'word' is a group of letters that have meaning. Examples: a, the, is, car, book, shoes, imagination, dream, work |
| (2) | A 'phrase' is two or more words but not a clause. Examples: a book, some cars, expensive shoes, a few |
| (3) | 'adjective phrases', adverbial phrases and noun phrases are phrases that function as adjectives, adverbs and nouns respectively. Phrases that begin with a preposition are called prepositional phrases. 'adjective phrases' are mostly composed of prepositional phrases. Examples:
|
| (4) | 'a clause' is a sentence or group of words that has a subject and predicate. Clauses that can stand alone are called sentences or main clauses, and those that cannot stand alone are called subordinate clauses. What is meant by predicate? 'predicates' are words that say something about the subject.
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Examples of clauses:
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NOUN CLAUSES
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an object in a main clause.
Contoh:
| (a) | I remember something. |
| (b) | I know something. |
| (c) | I understand something. |
Dalam kalimat di atas, something dapat digantikan oleh noun clause. ‘noun clause’ dalam bahasa Inggris kebanyakan dimulai dengan kata that, yang dalam bahasa Indonesia diterjemahkan menjadi bahwa.
| In the sentence: | I remember something. | |
| something | = he came to my house once. |
We replace something with he came to my house once. The sentence containing a noun clause becomes:
| I remember (that) he came to my house once. |
(that) he came to my house once’ is a noun clause because this clause can replace something.
| (a) | ‘that’ in a noun clause is optional. |
| (b) | Verbs that are usually followed by a noun clause include: agree, announce, answer, argue, ask, assume, believe, boast, complain, conclude, confess, decide, declare, demand, deny, discover, doubt, dream, explain, feel, find out, forget, guess, hear, hope, imagine, inform, judge, learn, notice, pray, predict, promise, realise/realize, regret, report, say, state, suppose, swear, think, understand |
A noun clause that starts with wh- is also called a wh-clause.
Examples:
| I remember something. | ||
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| something: | → | a statement with a wh-clause |
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| (a) Who studies English? | → | I remember who studies English. |
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| (b) What does he study? | → | I remember what he studies. |
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| (c) Who/What ate her food? | → | I remember who/what ate her food. |
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| (d) What did the cat eat? | → | I remember what the cat ate. |
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| (e) Who did you meet | → | I remember who(m) you met. |
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| (f) Where will she work? | → | I remember where she will work. |
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| (g) When will they be back? | → | I remember when they will be back. |
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| (h) How much is it? | → | I remember how much it is. |
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| (i) Which bus did he take? | → | I remember which bus he took. |
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| (j) Why did he say this? | → | I remember why he said that. |
| (a) | The 'object pronoun' that replaces people is who. (If the person to be replaced by the wh-clause is the object of the verb, we should use whom rather than who). 'who' can also be used in spoken language, but in written language, we should use whom. |
| (b) | The ‘clause’ that begins with wh- above is not an interrogative sentence so we cannot say |
Examples:
| I wonder something. | |||
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| something: | → | a statement with a noun clause | |
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| (a) | Are you a student? | → | I wonder whether (or not) / if he is a student. |
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| (b) | Did he go? | → | I wonder whether (or not) / if he went. |
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| (c) | Will he be re-elected? | → | I wonder whether (or not) / if he will be re-elected. |
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| (d) | Can he swim? | → | I wonder whether (or not) / if he can swim. |
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| (e) | Has he done his homework? | → | I wonder whether (or not) / if he has done his homework. |
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| (f) | Does he smoke? | → | I wonder whether (or not) / if he smokes. |
| (a) | We start noun clauses that come from ‘yes-no questions’ with whether (or not) or if. |
| (b) | (or not) is optional. |
Examples:
| I know something. | |||
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| something: | → | a statement with a noun clause | |
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| (a) | How beautiful she is! | → | I know how beautiful she is. |
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| (b) | What a beautiful girl she is! | → | I know what a beautiful girl she is. |
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| (c) | How quickly she finished her work! | → | I know how quickly she finished her work. |
Contoh:
| (a) | Something | is surprising. |
| That he will come to visit us | is surprising. | |
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| (b) | Something | makes me happy. |
| That she is happy | makes me happy. | |
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| (c) | Something | has embarrassed me. |
| What he did | has embarrassed me. | |
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| (d) | Something | doesn’t matter. |
| Whether (or not) he is rich | doesn’t matter. | |
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| (e) | Something | is important. |
| How well she should work | is important. | |
The noun clause (that-clause and wh-clause) placed at the front of a sentence is always in the singular form, so the verb used must be in the singular form.
|
(1) |
Pay attention to the use of noun clauses with the verbs insist and demand.
Sentence (1.1) (a) above can be replaced with sentence (1.1) (b), and sentence (1.2) (a) can be replaced with (1.2) (b). In sentences (1.1) (b) and (1.2) (b) above, the verbs in the noun clause (be, go) are in the first form. We do not say The teacher insisted that we were there on time or The teacher demanded that he went home. Both of these sentences are informal sentences and some people consider them wrong. Some verbs used in the above way are: |
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(2) |
‘that clause’ with should is used in front of a sentence The sentence That you (should) be there on time is important can be replaced with It is important that you (should) be there on time. ‘Expressions’ that start with it indicate instructions or that something is important. If something is important and is an instruction, then the verb used must be in the infinitive form, namely you (should) be, she (should) go, he (should) do as in the examples below Examples:
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INDIRECT SPEECH
‘indirect speech’ is a sentence said by another person (perhaps in a different place and time) based on what was said directly by the first speaker. ‘indirect speech’ is also called reported speech or quoted speech.
Examples:
| direct speech | → | indirect speech | |
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| (1) | He said, ‘I work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he worked hard. |
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| (2) | He said, ‘I am working hard.’ | → | He said (that) he was working hard. |
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| (3) | He said, ‘I will work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he would work hard. |
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| (4) | He said, ‘I was working hard.’ | → | He said (that) he had been working hard. |
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| (5) | He said, ‘I worked hard.’ | → | He said (that) he had worked hard. |
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| (6) | He said, ‘I have worked hard.’ | → | He said (that) he had worked hard. |
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| (7) | He said, ‘I am going to work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he was going to work hard. |
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| (8) | He said, ‘I can work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he could work hard. |
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| (9) | He said, ‘I may work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he might work hard. |
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| (10) | He said, ‘I might work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he might work hard. |
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| (11) | He said, ‘I must work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he must / had to work hard. |
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| (12) | He said, ‘I have to work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he had to work hard. |
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| (13) | He said, ‘Work hard.’ | → | He told me to work hard. |
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| (14) | He said, ‘I should work hard.’ | → | He said (that) he should work hard. |
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| (15) | He said, ‘Don’t leave.’ (Dia berkata, ‘Jangan pergi.’) |
→ | He told me not to leave. (Dia menyuruh saya untuk tidak pergi.) |
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| (16) | He said, ‘Will you come?’ (Dia berkata, ‘Akankah Anda datang?’) |
→ | He asked if I would go. He asked whether or not I would go. He asked whether I would go or not. (Dia bertanya apakah saya akan pergi.) |
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| (17) | He asked, ‘Where are you?’ (Dia bertanya, ‘Di manakah Anda?’) |
→ | He asked me where I was. (Dia bertanya kepada saya saya ada di mana.) |
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| (18) | He said, ‘I was talking to my teacher when Ann called me.’ |
→ | He said (that) he was talking to his teacher when Ann called him. |
| (1) | In indirect speech, the past continuous tense used with when clauses does not change. | ||||||
| (2) | In British English, quotation marks are written using single quotation marks (‘ ’), whereas in American English, they are written using double quotation marks (“ ”). | ||||||
| (3) | 'should' used with I and we (British) has the meaning of 'will'. 'should' changes to 'would' in indirect speech. Examples:
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| (4) | For a statement that is universally true, we can use the simple present tense in the noun clause. Examples:
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| (5) | If the introductory verb or verb in the main clause is in the simple present, the present perfect or the simple future tense, then the tense in indirect speech does not change. Examples:
|
Perhatikan perubahan kata keterangan waktu dan kata kerja di dalam indirect speech.
| (1) | He asked, ‘Did you stay here?’ | → | He asked whether (or not) I had stayed there. |
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| (2) | He said, ‘I was sick two days ago.’ | → | He said (that) he had been sick two days before (earlier). |
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| (3) | He said, ‘I will work tomorrow.’ | → | He said (that) he would work the following/next day. |
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| (4) | He said, ‘I arrived yesterday.’ | → | He said (that) he had arrived the day before / the previous day. |
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| (5) | He said, ‘I was there last week.’ | → | He said (that) he had been there the week before. |
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| (6) | He said, ‘I am leaving today.’ | → | He said (that) he was leaving that day. |
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| (7) | He said, ‘I drive myself.’ | → | He said (that) he drove himself. |
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| (8) | He said, ‘I was early this morning.’ | → | He said (that) he had been early that morning. |
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| (9) | He said, ‘I am eating now.’ | → | He said (that) he was eating then. |
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| (10) | He said, ‘He will come.’ | → | He said (that) he would go. |
| (a) | Perhatikan tata cara penulisan tanda baca. Tanda baca titik (.) harus ada di dalam tanda baca petik. Setelah kata He said, gunakan tanda koma (,) jika bukan di akhir kalimat. |
| (b) | Jika kalimat langsung ada di depan kalimat (memulai kalimat), maka kalimat langsung di dalam tanda baca petik (“ ”) diakhiri dengan tanda baca koma (,) dan berada di dalam tanda petik. Contoh: “I came two days ago,” he said. |
WISH SENTENCES
'wish sentences' are sentences that use the verb wish. The meaning of a sentence that uses wish is to expect something to happen that is not happening now or may not happen. This sentence is contrary to the existing reality.
| the truth |
wish sentences (sentences contrary to the reality) |
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| (a) | the present | He is not here. | → | I wish he were here. |
| They don't work abroad. | → | I wish they worked abroad. | ||
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| (b) | the future | She will confess. | → | I wish she wouldn't confess. |
| They are not going to sell it. | → | I wish they were going to sell it. | ||
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| (c) | the past | They didn't kill elephant. | → | I wish they had killed the elephant. |
| He died. | → | I wish he hadn't died. | ||
| (1) | The verb used in the subordinate clause in wish sentences must be in the past form. This past form does not indicate an event that occurred in the past but indicates a situation or situation that is contrary to reality. | ||||||||||||||||
| (2) | For events in the past but contrary to reality, we use the past perfect tense (c). | ||||||||||||||||
| (3) | In this wish sentence, the verb form of be is were or was. The use of was is informal and usually in spoken language. Examples: I wish I were not married atau I wish I was not married. |
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| (4) | If something is expected to still come true, don't use wish sentences, but use the verb hope. Examples:
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| (5) | 'wish' used with the modal auxiliary verbs 'would', could, might can have the meaning of expecting something to come true (which can still be realized) in the present or in the future. Examples:
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| (6) | I wish you would... means asking someone to... Examples:
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CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
'Conditional sentences' are suppositional sentences, namely:
‘Real conditional sentences’ are sentences that will or will not happen (may happen) depending on a condition or situation.
Examples:
| conditional sentences which may or may not happen | | | | |
the fact at present (kenyataan saat ini) | |
| the formula: If + the simple present tense, + the future tense |
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| (1) | If it rains, I will not go. | | | | |
We do not know yet whether it will |
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| (2) | If you insist, he will let you have it. | | | | |
We do not know yet whether you will insist. Maybe you will insist. Maybe you won’t. |
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| (3) | If she loves you, She will be happy for you. | | | | |
We do not know yet whether she will love you. Maybe she will love you. Maybe she won’t. |
The main sentence above will happen if the condition in the if-clause is met. If the condition in the if-clause is not met, then the main clause will not happen.
‘unreal conditional sentences in the present’ are sentences that are contrary to th efact at present.
Examples:
| conditional sentences which is contrary to the fact at present | | | | |
the fact at present | |
| Rumus: If + the simple past tense, + the past future tense |
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| (1) |
If I were in town, I would go. |
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I am not in town. |
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| (2) |
If I took the plane, I would get there fast. |
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I don’t take the plane. |
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| (3) | If I knew, I would tell you. | | | | |
I don’t know. |
| (a) | What is mentioned in the conditional sentence above does not correspond to the reality that is happening at the moment (not something that happened in the past). |
| (b) |
We use the past tense of the verb above only to express events that happened and are not in accordance with the reality that is now in front of us,. We do not use the past tense to express events that happened in the past.
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| (c) | If the if-clause contains be, we use were instead of was (were is preferable to was). |
‘unreal conditional sentences in the past’ are sentences that arecontrary to the fact in the past.
Examples:
| conditional sentences which is contrary to the fact in the past | | | | |
the fact in the past | |
| Rumus: If + the past perfect tense, + the past future perfect tense |
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| (1) |
If I had known it, I would have told you. |
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I didn’t know it, or |
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| (2) | If you had told me, I would have defended you. | | | | |
You didn’t tell me, or |
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| (3) | If she hadn’t come late, she would have got the present. | | | | |
She came late, or She has come late. |
| (a) | What is mentioned in the conditional sentence above is contrary to the fact. This happened in the past (not at present). |
| (b) | We use the sentence form above to state that an event that occurred in the past was contrary to the fact at that time. |
The ‘if’ in a conditional sentence can be omitted, but the auxiliary verb of the if clause must be placed at the front of the sentence.
Examples:
| (a) | If I had known it, I would have told you. (Had I known it, I would have told you.) |
| (b) | If I were you, I would talk to him. (Were I you, I would talk to him.) |
| (c) | If he should call, tell him I am not in my office. (Should he call, tell him I am not in my office.) |
VERB + DIRECT OBJECT + COMPLEMENT
They elected Robby chairman,
I painted the door blue
The formula:
| They
subject |
elected
verb |
Robby
direct object |
chairman.
noun as complement |
What is meant by ‘complement’?
Additional examples:
| (a) | He named me director. |
| (b) | They call her Opank. |
| (c) | The director appointed her secretary. |
Only a small number of verbs can be used in this way, including:
appoint, call, declare, choose, consider, designate, elect, find, imagine, make, name, nominate, pronounce, select, suppose, think, vote.
Pay attention to the following sentences:
| (a) | They appointed him (to be / as) the best player of the month. |
| (b) | We called the show a success. |
| (c) | They chose me (as) the team leader. |
| (d) | We consider him (to be / as) a good employee. |
| (e) | He has been designated (as) supervisor. |
| (f) | He was elected (to be / as) chairman. |
| (g) | We found him (to be) a generous man. |
| (h) | She likes to imagine herself (to be) a rich and beautiful woman. |
| (i) | He made me his assistant. |
| (j) | They named him (as) the new chairman of the company. |
| (k) | The board nominated him (as) the new director. |
| (l) | The priest pronounced them (to be) man and wife. |
| (m) | I was selected as / to be the team leader. |
| (n) | They suppose him (to be) a rich man. |
| (o) | She thinks herself (to be) a great writer. |
| (p) | They voted him (to be) Executive of the Year. |
| (q) | The judges voted my composition the best. |
| (r) | We declared her innocent. |
| (s) | We declared it to be a safe zone. |
| (a) | For words like select, we use the word as in front of the complement. |
| (b) | For the words appoint, choose, designate, elect, name, nominate, we can use as (optional) in front of the complement. |
| (c) | ‘designate’ is usually used in passive sentences. |
| (d) | For the words make and call, we don't need to use |
| (e) | For the verbs consider, find, imagine, suppose, think and vote, we can use to be. ‘To be’ is optional. |
The formula:
| I
subject |
painted
verb |
the door
direct object |
blue.
adjective as complement |
| (1) | The adjective 'blue' in the sentence above is the result of the action of a verb which expresses the condition of the noun. | |||||||||||||||
| (2) | Verbs that can be used in the above manner are crack, cut, freeze, make, push, serve, wash, wipe. Examples:
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| (3) | The verbs find, keep, leave, like, prefer, want and pronounce are used as above but not with the same meaning.
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CAUSATIVE VERBS: HAVE, GET, MAKE
‘Causative verbs’ are words that cause something to happen such as: blacken, get, harden, have, make. The ‘causative verbs’ that will be discussed here are have, make and get.
‘causative verbs’ adalah kata-kata yang menyebabkan sesuatu terjadi seperti: blacken, get, harden, have, make. ‘causative verbs’ yang akan dibahas di sini adalah have, make dan get.
| (1) | have + someone + infinitive | ||||||
| To cause someone to do something for one
Examples:
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| (2) | have + someone + verb + ing | ||||
| To cause someone to do what one expects (membuat seseorang bereaksi mengerjakan apa yang seseorang inginkan)
Contoh:
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| (3) | have + something + the past participle | ||||||||||
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| (4) | have + someone/something + adjective | ||||||
| To cause someone/something to be in a stated condition
Examples:
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| (1) | get + someone/something + to + infinitive | ||||||||
| To cause, to persuade someone/something to do something
Examples:
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| (2) | get + someone/something + verb + ing | ||||
| To cause someone/something to be at the point of doing something (menyebabkan seseorang/sesuatu berada pada titik sedang melakukan sesuatu)
Examples:
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| (3) | get + (someone/something) + adjective | ||||||||||
| To cause oneself/someone/something to be in a stated condition
Examples:
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| (1) | make + someone + infinitive | ||||
| To force someone to do something (memaksa seseorang melakukan sesuatu)
Examples:
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| (2) | make + someone/something + adjective | ||||||||||
| To cause someone/something to be/become
Examples:
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| (3) | make + someone/something + the past participle | ||||
| To cause someone/something to be/become
Examples:
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ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
'Adjective clauses' are clauses that function as adjective clauses, namely clauses that describe nouns or pronouns.
Examples:
| (1) | (a) | I know the man. He works at EPlus. |
| ‘he’ = the man = subject of the verb ‘works’ | ||
| (‘he’is replaced with who and placed right after the man.) | ||
| (b) | I know the man who works at EPlus. | |
| (Saya kenal pria yang bekerja di EPlus.) |
| (2) | (a) | I saw the book. It was on the table. |
| It = the book = subject of the verb ‘was’ | ||
| (‘it’ is replaced with which and placed right after the book.) | ||
| (b) | I saw the book which was on the table. |
First, let’s look at example sentence (1) (a) above. There are two sentences. In both sentences, there are two nouns with the same meaning, namely the man and he. We can combine the two sentences by using the relative pronoun ‘who’. We change the subject of the sentence He works at EPlus to the adjective clause ‘who works at EPlus’. The clause who works at EPlus describes the man and is placed after ‘the man’.
Pay attention to the position of the adjective clause below.
| (1) | I know the man that/who works at EPlus. |
| 'that/who works at EPlus' = adjective clause |
| (2) | I saw the book that/which was on the table. |
| 'that/which was on the table' = adjective clause |
Additional examples:
| (a) | I like the book. It is about the history of China. |
| I like the book which is about the history of China.' |
| (b) | I remember the car. The car is expensive. |
| I remember the car which is expensive. |
| (c) | I understand the lesson. The lesson is difficult. |
| I understand the lesson that is difficult. |
| (a) | In the adjective clause we use: 'who' to replace a person. ‘which’ to replace an object. ‘that’ to replace both a person or thing. |
| (b) | The relative pronouns who, which, that must be placed immediately after the noun being described. |
| (1) | (a) | The man talked to Teddy. I saw him. |
| him = the man = object of the verb ‘saw’ | ||
| (‘him’ diganti dengan that/who/whom dan ditempatkan tepat sesudah the man.) | ||
| (b) | The man (that/who/whom) I saw talked to Teddy. | |
| (Pria yang saya lihat berbicara dengan Teddy.) |
| (2) | (a) | The book describes the temple. I visited it. |
| it = the temple = object of the verb ‘visited’ | ||
| (‘it’ diganti dengan that/which dan ditempatkan tepat sesudah the temple.) | ||
| (b) | The book describes the temple (that/which) I visited. | |
| (Buku itu menggambarkan kuil yang saya kunjungi.) |
Let's look at sentence (1) (a) above. There are two sentences. In both sentences there are two nouns with the same meaning, namely the man and him. We replace 'him' in the second sentence 'I saw him', with the relative pronoun 'that' or 'who' or 'whom' so that 'I saw him' changes to 'that/who/whom I saw'. Then 'that/who/whom I saw' is placed right after 'the man' in the sentence The man talked to Teddy.
Pay attention to the position of the adjective clause below.
| (1) | The man (that/who/whom) I saw talked to Teddy. |
| '(that/who/whom) I saw' = adjective clause |
| (2) | The book describes the temple (that/which) I visited |
| '(that/which) I visited' = adjective clause |
Additional examples:
| (a) | He met the girl. The man was talking to her. |
| He met the girl (that/who/whom) the man was talking to. |
| (b) | I read the book. You gave me the book. |
| I read the book (that/which) you gave me. |
| (a) | The ‘relative pronoun’ (that/who/which) as the object above can be omitted (optional). |
| (b) | Nouns as objects in adjective clauses can only be replaced with the relative pronoun ‘that/which’ to replace objects and 'hat/who' to replace people. |
| (c) | Kata benda dalam kalimat utama tidak berpengaruh apa-apa terhadap adjective clause. The noun in the main sentence has no effect on the adjective clause. We still have to place the adjective clause right after the noun it describes. In the example above '(that/who/whom) I saw' is placed right after 'the man' and '(that/which) I visited' is placed right after 'the temple'. |
| (d) | After a preposition, we always use whom to replace a person. |
| (e) | ‘whom’ is rarely used in defining clauses. In defining clauses we usually use that or who or neither. (See unit 67) |
| (d) | As a relative pronoun 'that' replaces an object, 'whom' is used in non-defining clauses. (See unit 67) |
‘relative pronoun’ whose digunakan untuk menggantikan possessive adjective
(my, your, his, her, its, their, our) dan ditempatkan di depan kata benda.
Contoh relative pronoun ‘whose’ sebagai subjek:
| (1) | (a) | The man has gone home. His friends are here. |
| whose friends are here | ||
| (‘his friends’ diganti dengan whose friends dan ditempatkan tepat sesudah the man.) | ||
| (b) | The man whose friends are here has gone home. | |
| (Pria yang temannya ada di sini telah pulang.) |
Contoh relative pronoun ‘whose’ sebagai objek:
| (2) | (a) | I am waiting for the student. I borrowed his book. |
| whose book I borrowed | ||
| (‘his book’ diganti dengan whose book dan ditempatkan tepat sesudah the student.) | ||
| (b) | I am waiting for the student whose book I borrowed. | |
| (Saya sedang menunggu siswa yang bukunya saya pinjam.) |
Perhatikan posisi adjective clause di bawah ini.
| (1) | The man whose friends are here has gone home. |
| 'whose friends are here' = adjective clause |
| (2) | I am waiting for the student whose book I borrowed |
| 'whose book I borrowed' = adjective clause |
Contoh tambahan:
| (a) | The woman sells fruit. Her hands are dirty. |
| The woman whose hands are dirty sells fruit. |
| (b) | The singer was tired. The fans wanted to see her show. |
| The singer whose show the fans wanted to see was tired. |
DEFINING, NON-DEFINING CLAUSES
From the information given we can distinguish two types of adjective clauses. 'defining' and non-defining clause or extra information clause.
| (1) | 'defining clauses' are clauses that provide important information about the noun phrase being described or clauses that define the noun phrase. Such clauses are called restrictive clauses. |
| (2) | 'non-defining clauses' are clauses that are additional information from the noun phrase being described. Such clauses are also called non-restrictive clauses or extra information clauses or additive clauses. |
Contoh:
| (1) | 'defining', non-defining clause as subject |
| (a) |
The clause who lives next door is a defining clause because it defines the woman. |
| (b) |
The clause who lives next door is a non-defining clause/extra information clause and does not define Christine but only provides additional information to the phrase Christine. |
Contoh:
| (1) | 'defining', non-defining clause as object |
| (a) |
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| (b) |
The clause whom/who we talked to a week ago in sentence (a) is a defining clause because it defines the man, whereas the clause whom/who we talked to a week ago in sentence (b) does not define Johnson but is only additional information.
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| (c) |
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| (d) |
The clause which is in Europe in sentence (c) is a defining clause because it defines the city, whereas the clause which is the city of fashion in sentence (d) does not define Paris but is only additional information. |
Differences between:
defining clause and non-defining clause
| defining clause | non-defining clause | ||
| 1. | The writing does not use comma (,) punctuation. | 1. | It is written using comma (,) punctuation. |
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| 2. | We do not yet know the object or person in question. The information provided is not additional information, but important information that defines the object or person. | 2. | We already know the object or person in question. The information provided is additional information. |
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| 3. | Kita dapat menggunakan baik relative pronoun 'that' maupun which. |
3. | We do not use the relative pronoun 'that' but use which to replace the object. We do not say |
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| 4. | We can use either the relative pronoun 'that' or which. (but 'whom' is rarely used) Examples: He is the man (who/whom/that) we are looking for. |
4. | The relative pronoun whom/who is used to replace an object as in example 2(b) on the previous page: I met Johnson, whom/who we talked to a week ago. ('who' can be used for informal use) additional examples: Mary, whom/who everybody loves, is my friend. |
RELATIVE ADVERBS:
WHERE, WHEN, WHY
‘relative adverb’ where replaces place
Examples:
| (1) |
The relative adverb where can be replaced with in which.
Examples:
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| (2) | The ‘relative adverb’ where as the object of the adjective clause can be omitted. Examples:
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‘relative adverb’ when replaces time
Examples:
| (1) | We can say:
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| (2) | ‘that’, when, on which dan in which adalah optional. | ||||||||
| (3) | ‘when’ can also be replaced with in which, on which or that. |
Additional Examples:
| (a) | This is the day (when / that / on which) I have a test. |
| (b) | Those were the years (when / that / in which) our family lived a hard life. |
| (c) | Do you know the time (when) the train leaves? |
| (d) | The day (that) they will get married has come. |
'relative adverb' why replaces reason
Examples:
| (1) | ‘the reason’ in brackets in the sentence above can be omitted. | ||||
| (2) | ‘why’ can also be omitted in the following sentences: | ||||
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| (3) | ‘why’ can also be replaced with that. So, we can also say: | ||||
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| (4) | If that is used to replace why, we must use the reason. | ||||
| (5) | We can replace ‘the reason why’ with ‘the reason for which’: That’s the reason for which he loves you. |
Contoh tambahan:
| (a) | There is no reason (why) I have to stay. |
| (b) | I am tired of your reason (why/that) you need so much money. |
| (c) | I don’t know (the reason / why) he is so stubborn. |
| (d) | I don’t know (that) he is so stubborn. |
MORE ON ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
We can also use an adjective clause to describe the entire sentence.
| (1) | (a) | The hotel was bombed. This killed ten people. |
| (b) | The hotel was bombed, which killed ten people.Contoh: |
| (2) | (a) | He was accused of murder. This was a mistake. |
| (b) | He was accused of murder, which was a mistake. |
| (a) | ‘this’ in sentence (1) (a) above is ‘The hotel was bombed’. |
| (b) | ‘this’ in sentence (2) (a) above is ‘He was accused of murder’. |
| (c) | ‘which killed ten people’ in sentence (1) (b) is an adjective clause that describes ‘The hotel was bombed’. |
| (d) | ‘which was a mistake’ in sentence (2) (b) is an adjective clause which explains ‘He was accused of murder’. |
Examples:
| (1) | (a) | The students could answer the questions. Some of them were difficult. |
| (b) | The students could answer the questions, some of which were difficult. |
| (2) | (a) | They sold flowers. Only a few of them were expensive. |
| (b) | They sold flowers, only a few of which were expensive. |
| (3) | (a) | I talked to the students. Some of them are from the same homeland as I am. |
| (b) | I talked to the students, some of whom are from the same homeland as I am. |
| (4) | (a) | He has five students. None of their scores are/is good. |
| (b) | He has five students, none of whose scores are/is good. |
| (a) | This expression of quantity is placed immediately after the noun it describes. |
| (b) | The ‘relative pronoun’ used depends on the noun after the expression of quantity (whom, which, whose). ‘whom’ to replace a person as the object of the preposition of. ‘which’ to replace an object. 'whose' to replace a possessive adjective. |
| (c) | ‘that’ is not used in the sentence above. |
| (d) | The comma (,) must be used and placed after the noun being described. |
| (e) | Additional examples of quantity expressions: a couple of, a great deal of, a great number of, a little of, a lot of, a number of, all of, either of, every one of, half of, little of, lots of, most of, much of, none of, only a few of, plenty of, several of, three of, two thirds of |
| C.1 | WITH NOUNS (THE TASTE OF WHICH, THE PRICE OF WHICH, ETC.) | ||||||||
Examples:
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| C.2 | DENGAN THE SUPERLATIVE FORM: THE MOST + ADJECTIVE + OF WHICH, THE + ADJECTIVE + -EST + OF WHICH | ||||||||
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Examples:
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Examples:
| (a) | Anyone who wishes to attend the course should register now. |
| (b) | Anything (that) you just said is wrong. |
| (c) | Someone (that) you want to see has come. |
| (d) | She is the one (that) I like most. |
| (e) | Those who want to take the make-up test can come on Friday. |
| (f) | It was I who arranged all this. |
| (g) |
He who did this must be responsible. |
| (h) | It was she who knocked at the door. |
Examples:
| (a) | The city in which I was born is Jakarta. |
| (b) | The pen with which I write is from my girlfriend. |
| (c) | The problem in which he is interested has not been solved yet. |
| (d) | The day on which we have to say ‘goodbye’ has finally come. |
| (e) | The money with which I bought the book is from my father. |
| (a) | Prepositions can also be placed at the end of an adjective clause. We can say: the city which I was born in, the pen which I write with, the problem which he is interested in. |
| (b) | For sentences related to time, the day on which can be replaced with the day when. |
ABRIDG(E)MENT OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
‘adjective clauses’ can be abbreviated as follows:
| (1) | (a) | The boy talked to the girl. He is my student. |
| (b) | The boy who talked to the girl is my student. |
| (2) | (a) | The boy is talking to the girl. He is my student. |
| (b) | The boy (who is) talking to the girl is my student. |
| (3) | The boy talking to the girl is my student. |
| (a) | Sentences (1) (b) and (2) (b) above can be shortened to sentence (3). |
| (b) | We can replace who talked in sentence (1) (b) with talking. |
| (c) | We can omit ‘who is’ in sentence (2) (b). ‘who is’ is optional (can be used, or not). |
| (d) | Such a 'clause' is also called an -ing clause and has an active meaning. |
Examples:
| (1) | (a) | The hotel was bombed. This killed ten people. |
| (b) | The hotel was bombed, which killed ten people. |
| (2) | The hotel was bombed, killing ten people. |
| (a) | Sentence (1) (b) above can be shortened to sentence (2). |
| (b) | The clause which killed ten people in (1) (b) can be replaced with killing ten people in sentence (2). |
| (c) | The clause killing ten people explains the sentence ‘The hotel was bombed’ in sentence (2). |
contoh:
| (1) | (a) | The money was my brother’s. It was stolen . |
| (b) | The money (which was) stolen was my brother’s. |
| (2) | The money stolen was my brother’s. |
| (a) | Sentence (1) (b) above can be shortened to sentence (2). |
| (b) | We can omit which was. ‘Which was’ is optional. |
| (c) | Such a 'clause' is also called an -ed clause and has a passive meaning. |
Examples
| (1) | (a) | The man is my friend. He is from China. |
| (b) | The man (who is) from China is my friend. |
| (2) | The man from China is my friend. |
| (a) | Sentence (1) (b) above can be shortened to sentence (2). |
| (b) | We can omit who is. In sentence (1) (b) ‘who is’ is optional. |
Contoh:
| (1) | (a) | Freddy needs money with which he can buy a car. |
| (b) | Freddy needs money with which to buy a car. |
| (2) | (a) | The only thing you can see here is the forest. |
| (b) | The only thing to see here is the forest. |
| (a) | The ‘infinitive phrase’ is placed right after the noun it describes. |
| (b) | Sentence (1) (b) can replace sentence (1) (a), and sentence (2) (b) can replace sentence (2) (a). |
| (1) | '-ing clause' and -ed clause can be used to explain noun phrases. |
| (2) | The ‘-ing clause’ can also be used to describe an entire sentence. |
| (3) | 'Prepositional phrase' can be used to explain noun phrases. |
| (4) | The position of -ing clauses, -ed clauses and prepositional phrases is right after the noun phrase being described. |
STILL, YET, ALREADY, JUST, ANY MORE
Examples:
| (a) | He is still a bachelor. |
| (b) | Are you still here? You should have gone home hours ago. |
| (c) | I am still thinking. |
| (d) | She still hasn’t come. |
| (e) | I still can’t decide. |
We use still to express surprise because something that should have been finished has not been finished and is still happening.
'still' also means despite
Examples:
| (a) | You may not like him, but he is still your brother. |
| (b) | Even though she had no time, she still offered to help. |
Examples:
| (a) | He had already gone when we arrived. |
| (b) | We have already finished. |
| (c) | Is it eleven o’clock already? |
| (d) | You have already met him, haven’t you? |
| (1) | In interrogative and negative sentences already is used to express surprise because something happened faster than expected. | ||||
| (2) | In positive sentences, already means something has finished happening. | ||||
| (3) | 'already' is used with the present perfect tense in British English and is used with the simple past tense in American English. Examples:
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‘yet’ is an adverb and means until now. In British English, yet is used in the present perfect tense and the past perfect tense, while in American English, yet is used in the simple past tense. ‘yet’ is used in questions and negatives. ‘yet’ in an interrogative sentence asks whether something that is expected to happen has happened.
Examples:
| (a) | Are you ready yet? |
| No, not yet. | |
| (b) | Have you had dinner yet? (British) |
| (c) | Did you eat yet? (American) |
‘Yet’ in negative sentences indicates something that has not happened yet but may happen.
Examples:
| (a) | The bus hasn’t come yet. (British) |
| (b) | He hasn’t bought a house yet. (British) |
| (c) | He didn’t come yet. (American) |
‘already’ used in interrogative sentences is more likely to require a yes answer than yet which is used in interrogative sentences.
'just' is an adverb and has the meaning very recently, in an immediate past. 'just' is usually used with the present perfect tense in British English and with the simple past tense in American English.
Examples:
| (a) | I have just done it. (British) |
| (b) | I just did it. (American) |
| (c) | He has just left. (British) |
| (d) | He just left. (American) |
'just' also has the meaning of only a short time.
Examples: They left just before/after Sunday.
‘more’ is an adverb. any more (anymore) means not again. ‘Any more’ is used to express an event that happened in the past, but did not happen again. ‘Any more’ is used in negative sentences. In American English ‘anymore’ is written together.
Examples:
| (a) | I can’t stand it any more / any longer. |
| (b) | I don’t smoke any more / any longer. |
‘no longer’, any longer has the same meaning as any more. It’s just that no longer is placed in the middle of a sentence, while any longer is at the end of a sentence.
Examples:
| (a) | She is no longer a girl. She has already grown up. |
| (b) | He no longer loves you. |
Compare the following sentences:
| (a) | We haven’t been friends yet. |
| (b) | We are already friends. |
| (c) | We have just been friends. |
| (d) | We are still friends. |
| (e) | We are not friends any more / any longer. |
'no more' is used with nouns and adjectives, not with verbs.
Examples:
| (a) | There is no more milk. |
| (b) | He is no more a writer. |
| (c) | He is no more capable of doing that. |
| ('no more' here means not any more) |
BEFORE, AFTER, SINCE, BY THE TIME, WHENEVER, EVERY TIME
'before' as a conjunction has the meaning earlier than the time when, while after as a conjunction has the meaning at or during a time later than something.
| (1) | ‘before’ is used to indicate two events where one event occurs before the other. Examples: |
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| the simple past / the past perfect tense + before + the simple past tense the simple future tense + the simple present tense
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| (2) | ‘after’ is used to indicate two events where one event occurs after the other event. Examples: |
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the simple past tense + after + the simple past (the past perfect) tense
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(1) |
‘before’ and after are used with the simple past tense and the past perfect tense. Sentences that use the past perfect tense are events that happened first between two events in the past. | ||||||
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(2) |
‘before’ and after are also used with the simple future tense and the simple present tense.
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(3) |
‘before’ and after as prepositions are used with time and something as a time limit.
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| (4) | ‘before’ and after as prepositions are used with places that relate to sequential order. Examples:
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| (5) | ‘before’ and after are often used with verb + ing. Examples:
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‘since’ means from a specified time until a later time in the past or until now. ‘Since’ is used to indicate an event that occurred from a point in time in the past to a point in time in the past or until now.
Examples:
the present perfect tense + since + the simple past tense
It was the first time + the past perfect tense + since + the past perfect tense
| (a) | I have lived here since I was born. |
| (b) | She has taught English since I was in senior high school. |
| (c) | It was the first time I had visited him since I had lived there. |
|
(1) |
‘since’ can be used with the present or the past perfect tense.
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(2) |
Sentences that use before, after and since can be abbreviated as follows:
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(3) |
'since' is used in the simple present tense as the main clause in the sentence: We often go out together every week since we last quarrelled/quarreled. |
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| (4) | 'since’ means because and is usually placed in front of sentences such as: Since nobody knows her phone number, I can’t call her. ‘since’ is used if the reason for the incident is not new information and is already known to everyone. | ||||||||
| (5) | ‘from the moment / from the day’ can be used to replace since. Examples: From the moment / From the day (since) they knew each other, they have been talking to each other every day. |
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| (6) | ‘since when’ is used in conversation to show that someone is feeling unhappy or annoyed: Since when have you ever been concerned about my feelings? |
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| (7) | ‘from’ (preposition) is usually used with tenses other than the perfect tense, while since (as a preposition and conjunction) is used with the perfect tense. Examples:
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‘by the time’ means not later than a specified time, before.
Examples:
By the time + the simple present tense, + the future perfect tense
By the time + the simple past tense, + the past perfect tense
| (a) | By the time you arrive, the party will have been over. |
| (b) | By the time I finished my work, he had already gone to sleep. |
‘whenever’ mempunyai arti at any time, regardless of when (kapan saja/setiap kali).
Examples:
| (a) | Whenever / Every time she comes, she brings some food with her. |
| (b) | I can come whenever / every time you like. |
| (c) | Every time I phone, you seem to be busy. |
UNTIL, AS, AS LONG AS, AS SOON AS, ONCE, NOW (THAT)
| (1) | ‘until’ means as far as the time when / up to the time when. ‘until’ can be replaced by till. ‘until’ can start a sentence, whereas till cannot. Note that till is written with two -ls (-ll), while until is written with one -l. ‘till’ is used in spoken language to sound more poetic. |
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Example:
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| (2) | ‘until’ means before the time when something happens. | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | ‘until’ can also function as a preposition with the meaning: as far as the specified time. | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) |
‘until’ is used with the present tense to indicate the future.
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| (2) |
‘until’ is also used with the perfect tense.
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| (3) | We can also use to replace till to indicate time as in the following sentences:
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‘as’ means during the time when; while.
| (1) | ‘as’ is folowed by ‘the past continuous tense’. | ||||
| As + the past continuous tense, + the simple past tense ‘as’ in the example sentences below is used to indicate an event that was happening when another event happened in the past.
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| (2) | ‘as’ diikuti oleh the simple past tense | ||||||||
| As + the simple past tense, + the simple past tense ‘as’ in the following sentence indicates two events that occurred simultaneously in the past with a very short duration.
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| (3) | ‘as’ can also be used to express two events that develop and change simultaneously. Pay attention to the construction below: |
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As + the simple present tense, + the simple present tense Examples:
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| (4) | ‘as’ is used in the expressions as had happened before / as had been expected with a missing subject. |
| Examples: He fainted from hunger as had happened before. |
Note the construction with as/so long as:
the future tense + as/so long as + the simple present tense
‘as long as / so long as’ means only if, on the condition that
Examples:
| (a) | As/So long as he allows me to come, I will. |
| (b) | As/So long as it is not hot, we can swim. |
| (c) | I will accept that offer as/so long as he gives me a car. |
| (d) | You can go out as/so long as you come back by eleven o’clock. |
‘as soon as’and once mean at the moment that
Examples:
| (a) | I will do that as soon as I can. |
| (b) | He went home as soon as he heard the news. |
| (c) | I will buy a car as soon as I get my salary. |
| (d) | Once you know her, you will like her. |
‘Now (that)’ can express time and reason at the same time. Now (that) has the meaning: considering that now, as the result of the fact that, since (because now/at this time).
Examples:
| (a) | Now (that) you are husband and wife, you can kiss your bride. |
| (b) | Now (that) you have passed your test, you can go on to the next level. |
AS, WHEN, WHILE, WHEREAS, WHEN/AFTER... THEN, NO SOONER... THAN, SCARCELY/HARDLY/BARELY... WHEN
| (1) | ‘as’ means during the time when; while (ketika, selagi, saat). ‘as’ in the example sentences below is used for an event that was happening when another event happened in the past. | ||||
| The formula: As + the past continuous tense, + the simple past tense
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| (2) | ‘as’ in the following sentence indicates two events that occurred simultaneously in the past with a very short duration. | ||||||||
The formula: As + the simple past tense, + the simple past tense
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| (3) | 'when' means at or during the time that, while 'while' means during the time that, when | |||||||||||||||||||
Pay attention to the following sentence:
‘as’ is used as a substitute for when and while in the sentence above. Pay attention to the following sentence:
‘as’ is used to replace as soon as (immediately after/at the time) in the sentence above.
‘while’ can replace when if the subordinate clause uses the auxiliary verb ‘be’ (am, is, are, was, were) without the main verb, whereas while cannot replace when in the sentence below which uses the main verb in the simple past tense. When I crossed the street, I saw an accident.
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| (4) | ‘when’ also means although. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | ‘when’ means if (kalau) as in the sentence below: | ||||
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Examples:
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| (6) |
'when' means every time (every time) as in the sentence below:
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Examples:
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| (7) | ‘when’ is used to express the sequence of events. See also when/after... then. |
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Examples:
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| (8) | 'while’ is used to express something that is contrasting. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (9) | While is used to mean although (although). | ||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | We should avoid giving definitions that start with the word when. Examples:
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| (2) | Dengan when dan while, kita dapat menghilangkan subject + be. Examples:
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'whereas' means compared with the fact that, but, while (used for introducing an opposite).
Examples:
| (a) | He must be very old, whereas his wife looks very young. |
| (b) | We thought that she was shy, whereas in fact she was just nervous. |
'when/after... then' means after... only then.
Examples:
| (a) | When/After she finishes preparing breakfast for her husband and children, then she will have time for her own. |
| (b) | When/After the wedding was over, then they could get away for their honeymoon vacation. |
| (c) | When/After you see him, then you’ll understand. |
‘no sooner… than’ means immediately when or after.
Examples:
| (a) | He had no sooner / No sooner had he arrived than he had to leave again. |
| (b) | No sooner said than done. |
| (c) | I had no sooner / No sooner had I had a rest than I had to work again. |
‘scarcely/hardly… when’ means only just.
Examples:
| (1) | (a) | She had scarcely/hardly/barely gone out when she realised/realized she had left the key inside. |
| (b) | Scarcely/Hardly/Barely had she gone out when she realised/realized she had left the key inside. | |
| (2) | (a) | He had scarcely/hardly locked the door when someone knocked at/on it. |
| (b) | Scarcely/hardly/hardly had he locked the door when someone knocked at/on it. |
ALTHOUGH, DESPITE, IN SPITE OF, HOWEVER, BECAUSE (OF), INASMUCH AS, IF, UNLESS, WHETHER (OR NOT), EVEN IF, EVEN
‘although’ is a conjunction. 'although' means in spite of the fact that. 'although' is used to form a subordinate sentence that states something that contrasts with the main sentence.
Although/Though + Clause, + Clause
Although/Though she was ill, she came to the meeting.
Examples:
| (a) | They got married although/though their parents were opposed to it. |
| (b) | Although/Though she is rich, she is very humble. |
| (c) | Although/Though they didn’t win, they were happy. |
| (d) | Although/Though it was raining, he went out. |
| (1) | ‘although’ can also be replaced with though, even though. The use of though is informal. ‘though’ is used in conversation, while even though is a more emphatic form of although. | ||||
| (2) | ‘though’ can be placed at the end of a sentence, but this is not the case with although. Example:
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| (3) | ‘although/though’ can also be placed in front of adjectives and adverbials. Examples:
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| (4) |
‘though’ and as (with the meaning though) are also used with the following constructions:
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In spite of / Despite + noun phrase, + clause
In spite of / Despite her illness, she came to the meeting.
Examples:
| (a) | In spite of / Despite his staying in Japan for a few years, he can’t speak Japanese well. |
| (b) | In spite of / Despite the danger of his job, he does not get a good salary. |
| (c) | In spite of this, he still wants to be her friend. |
‘in spite of’ and despite can also be used in the same way as although but we have to add the phrase the fact that after in spite of / despite.
Examples:
In spite of / Despite the fact that + Clause, + Clause
In spite of the fact that she was ill, she attended the meeting.
Examples:
| (a) | In spite of / Despite the fact that he is thin, he is strong. |
| (b) | In spite of / Despite the fact that she has the money, she never wants to pay her debt. |
Examples:
| (a) | I tried to be careful. In spite of this / Despite this / Even so, I made a mistake. |
| I tried to be careful. Nevertheless, I made a mistake. | |
| (b) | The air conditioner is on. Inspite of / Despite this / Even so, it is still hot in here. |
| The air conditioner is on. Nevertheless / Even so, it is still hot in here. |
'however' can have the same meaning as although, but however must use a comma (,).
Examples:
| (a) | They were all tired. However, they still fought. |
| (b) | The film was bad. However, I enjoyed it. |
Examples:
| (a) | I will still go even if you don’t. |
| (b) | Even if I don’t like it, I will try it. |
'even if' also has a meaning like whether or not.
Examples:
| (a) | Even if / Whether or not he invites me, I won’t go. |
| (b) | Even if / Whether or not he practices a lot, he will not win. |
In sentences that use even if clauses (present), we will still do the same thing whatever the conditions, whereas in if clauses (present), we do something depending on a condition.
'even' is used to emphasize something surprising and unexpected.
Examples:
| (a) | He even doesn’t want to speak to me. |
| (b) | Even a woman can do it without any difficulty. |
| (c) | Nobody likes him, even his own sister. |
| (d) | I coudn’t find him, even in his bedroom. |
‘even now/then’ means despite what has/had happened.
Examples:
| (a) | Even now/then he still likes her. |
| (b) | Even now/then she doesn’t want to understand. |
Examples:
| (a) | Although I had a big dinner, I am hungry. |
| (b) | I had a big dinner, but I am hungry anyway. |
| (c) | I had a big dinner, but I am still hungry. |
| (d) | I had a big dinner, yet I am still hungry. |
‘Because’ means for the reason that; since. We use because to answer the question why?
Examples:
| (a) | Why are you late? I am late because I missed the bus. |
| (b) | Why didn’t you do your homework? I didn’t do it because I was sick. |
The construction of sentences that use because-clause.
clause + because + clause
I passed my exam because I (had) studied hard.
Examples:
| (a) | Because the weather was hot, she brought an umbrella with her. |
| (b) | He died because he did not want to see the doctor. |
‘because + clause’ can be replaced by due to / owing to the fact that + Clause
Examples:
He is rich due to the fact that (because) he earned a lot of money when young.
‘because of’ and due to / owing to are followed by a noun phrase, while due to / owing to the fact that is followed by (subject + verb).
because of / due to / owing to + noun phrase
due to / owing to the fact that + clause (subject + verb)
Examples:
| (a) | Because of / Due to the noise, I woke up. |
| (b) | Because of / Due to uncontrolled circumstances, I had to cancel the meeting. |
| (c) | I stayed up because of the baby / (,) due to the baby. |
| (d) | He couldn’t pay his debt (,) owing to his unemployment. |
|
(1) |
‘owing to’ is not used with sentences that use be as the main verb. We use due to for such sentences.
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| (2) | Phrases/clauses that begin with due to and owing to are separated from the rest of the sentence by using a comma (,). | ||||||||
| (3) |
Many people think that due to cannot be placed in front of a sentence, but many people also use it.
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‘inasmuch as’ means since, because, owing to the fact that.
Examples:
| (a) | Inasmuch as you are the eldest, you are responsible for the behaviour/behavior of your brothers and sisters at home while your parents are away. |
| (b) | Inasmuchas they didn’t have the same idea as he did, they didn’t vote for him. |
‘inasmuch as’ also means to the extent that, to the degree that. The use of such meanings is rare.
Examples:
| (a) | He will be kind to you only inasmuch as you can benefit him. |
| (b) | Men and women are slim only inasmuch as they are young. |
This If-clause is also called the adverbial clause of condition. We will only discuss conditional sentences that could possibly happen. For the use of If-clause that states something that is contrary to reality either in the present or in the past, study the topic of ‘conditional clauses’.
The constructions of sentences using the conjunctions ‘if’ and ‘unless’.
He will give a make-up test if the students fail in the test.
He will not give a make-up test unless the students fail in the test.
| (a) | ‘unless’ means if… not. |
| (b) | The two sentences above have the same meaning. |
| (c) | The main clause ‘He will give a make-up test if the students fail in the test’ will be carried out or not depending on whether The students fail in the test or not. If they fail, the make-up test will be carried out. If they do not fail, the make-up test will not be carried out. |
‘whether (or not)’ is used to state that an event will still be carried out regardless of whether a condition is met or not.
The construction of sentences using the conjunction ‘whether or not’.
| clause | + | whether or not | + | clause | ||
| clause | + | whether | + | clause | + | (or not) |
Example:
| (a) | I will go whether or not I get the permission. |
| I will go whether I get the permission or not. | |
| (b) | Let me know whether you are interested or not. |
| Let me know whether or not you are interested. |
| (a) | Sentence (a) above means: I will go if I get the permission dan I will go if I don’t get the permission. |
| (b) | Sentence (b) above means: Let me know if you are interested and Let me know if you are not interested. |
| (c) | ‘or not’ in the whether or not clause can be placed at the end of the sentence and can also be omitted. |
‘regardless of’ means whether (or not).
‘regardless of’ is followed by a noun phrase.
Regardless of + noun phrase, + clause
Examples:
| (a) | Regardless of the weather, Robert went swimming. |
| (b) | They got married regardless of their parents’ disapproval. |
| (1) | ‘whenever’ means at any time or regardless of when |
| Examples: I will come whenever I have time. |
| (2) | ‘wherever’ means in any place or regardless of where. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | ‘whoever’ means any person who. |
| Examples: Tell whoever you like. I don’t care. |
| (4) | ‘however’ means regardless of how. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | ‘whatever’ means regardless of what. |
| Examples: Don’t be nervous, whatever happens |
(JUST) IN CASE (THAT) / (JUST) IN THE EVENT (THAT), PROVIDED/PROVIDING (THAT) / ONLY IF, OTHERWISE, OR ELSE, AS IF / AS THOUGH
‘(just) in case (that)’ means because of the possibility of something happening.
Examples:
| (a) | Take this money with you (just) in case you (should) need it. |
| (b) | Take the umbrella with you in case it should rain / in case it rains. |
| (c) | In the event that you (should) need to talk to me, you can call me on this number. |
| (1) |
Kita use in case of + noun phrase:
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| (2) | We use in this/that case (if this/that happens or has happened) Examples:
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‘provided/providing (that)’ and only if means only on condition that.
Examples:
| (a) | Provided that you promise to pay my expenses, I will agree to go with you |
| (b) | Provided that he has the identity card, he will have no problems going in. |
| (c) | Only if you go will I go. |
| (d) | Only if I get a job will I marry you. |
| (e) | She will forgive you only if you apologise/apologize. |
| (1) |
Jika ‘only if’ digunakan memulai kalimat, maka subjek dan kata kerja utama dari main clause harus diinversi. |
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| (2) | ‘if only’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu harapan (sekarang, masa depan dan masa lampau atau penyesalan).
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| (3) | Jangan gunakan will setelah provided (that) / providing (that). Gunakan the present tense. |
‘otherwise’ and or else means if not (if not / if not). ‘otherwise’ and or else are used to express an event that is contradictory. ‘otherwise’ starts a new sentence, while or else does not. ‘or otherwise’ means or in another way and or not.
Examples:
| (1) | (a) | I have to study hard. Otherwise, I will fail. |
| (b) | I have to study hard, or else I will fail. | |
| (c) | We will go by plane or otherwise / or in another way. | |
| (d) | Women, whether married or otherwise / or not, ... | |
| (2) | (a) | She must go now. Otherwise, she will be late. |
| (b) | She must go now, or else she will be late. | |
| (c) | We will enter by breaking the door or otherwise / or in another way. | |
| (d) | All people, whether rich or otherwise / or not, ... | |
| (3) | (a) | The students always do their home work. Otherwise, the teacher gets upset. |
| (b) | The students always do their homework, or else the teacher gets upset. | |
| (c) | We will contact him by phone or otherwise / or in another way. | |
| (d) | Animals, whether wild or otherwise / or not, ... |
'as if / as though' has the meaning of apparently; in a way that makes it seem that something is true.
Pay attention to the sentence below:
| (a) | He acted as if / as though he had known. |
| (b) | He was asleep as if / as though he were dead. |
| (c) | He spoke as if / as though he had known her. |
| (d) | He ate as if / as though he hadn’t eaten for days. |
| the fact of the main clause |
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contrary-to-the fact sentences |
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the fact of the sub-clause |
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| (1) | He acted. | | | He had known. | | | He knew. |
| (2) | He was asleep. | | | He were dead. | | | He is not dead. |
| (3) | He spoke. | | | He had known her. | | | He didn’t know her. |
| (4) | He ate. | | | He had eaten for days. | | | He ate. |
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(1) |
The 'as if-clause' above contains a meaning that is contrary to reality. | ||||
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(2) |
'as if-clause' which states something that is not in accordance with reality can use the past tense. | ||||
|
(3) |
‘as if’ has the meaning of 'apparently'; 'in a way that makes it seem that something is true'.
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(1) |
The clauses It is going to rain and You are going to attend a party may happen or not. We say the above as a prediction. | ||||
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(2) |
If something is not true, we use the past tense to express it. | ||||
| (3) | ‘look as if’is an idiom. | ||||
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(3) |
‘It isn’t as if’ means ‘It is not true that...’
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EXCEPT (THAT), EXCEPT (FOR), OTHER THAN (THE FACT) THAT, ONLY (THAT), BUT (FOR), APART FROM
‘except’ means not including somebody/something. We use 'except' to indicate objects or people that are not included in the main clause.
Examples:
| (a) | This book is a very good one except that it has no answer key. |
| (b) | The story is a very good one except that it has a sad ending. |
| (c) | We understand everything except why/when/where she killed herself. |
| (d) | We remember nothing about her except that she has long hair. |
'except' means not icluding; other than.
except + preposition ; except + (to) infinitive ; except + verb + ing
Examples:
| (a) | There is no traffic jam here except after office hours. |
| (b) | I seldom exercise except play tennis. |
| (c) | He rarely needs to go to the market except to buy some vegetables. |
| (d) | He is not interested in anything except swimming / except in swimming. |
We use except (for) after general statements, especially with words like all, every, no, everything, anybody, nowhere, everyone. ‘for’ is optional in this case.
Examples:
| (a) | I have no idea except (for) this one. |
| (b) | Everyone has gone home except (for) John. |
| (c) | You don’t have to pay anything except (for) dinner. |
For other words we use except for.
Examples:
| (a) | I have cleaned the house except for the bedroom. |
| (b) | The beach is very quiet except for the sound of the wind. |
| (except for is used if there are no words, such as: all, every, no, everything, anybody, nowhere, everyone) | |
| (c) | Except for Catherine and Caroline, nobody appeared. |
| (except for is used at the front of a sentence and before nobody.) |
‘other than the fact that’ means except that and is usually used after the negative form of the main clause.
Examples:
| (a) | I have no other information other than (the fact) that he is bankrupt. |
| (b) | I know nothing about him other than (the fact) that he is rich. |
‘other than’ with the meaning except can also be followed by a to + infinitive, an adverb, prepositional phrase or an object pronoun according to the continuation of the sentence structure itself.
Examples:
| (a) | He never speaks to me other than to ask for money. |
| (other than + to + infinitive) | |
| (b) | I have never known him to behave other than selfishly. |
| (other than + adverb) | |
| (c) | You can’t get there other than on foot. |
| (other than + prepositional phrase) | |
| (d) | There is nobody here other than me. |
| (other than + object pronoun) |
‘only (that)’ means 'except that'.
Examples:
| (a) | I’d love to come, only (that) I have to work. |
| (b) | This is a good journey, only (that) the weather is bad. |
'but' is used after negatives (no, nowhere, none, nobody, nothing, etc.), question words (who, where, etc.), every, everyone/everybody, everything, any, anyone, anywhere, all, etc. ) and has the same meaning as 'except for'.
‘but for’ someone/something means without someone/something atau if it weren’t for someone or something.
Examples:
| (a) | There was no way-out but the emergency exit. |
| (b) | Nobody was here but John. (Tidak ada orang di sini kecuali John.) |
| (c) | But for / Without him / his help, I wouldn’t be successful today. |
| (d) | She does nothing but complain all day long. |
| (e) | There is no alternative but to start all over again. |
| (1) | After' but' we can use an object pronoun. In formal English a subject pronoun is used if the pronoun is in the subject position of the sentence. Examples:
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| (2) | After 'but' we can also use verbs with parallel structures. Examples:
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besides' has the meaning in addition to. 'besides' also has the meaning except/apart from and is used after a negative.
Examples:
| (a) | Besides / In addition to this grammar book, I have other books at home. |
| (b) | Besides/In addition to basketball, I enjoy playing tennis. |
| (c) | He has no relatives besides / except / apart from an aged uncle. |
Pay attention to the use of except (for), besides and apart from. ‘besides’ usually adds. ‘except’ usually subtracts. ‘apart from’ has the meaning of adding and subtracting. In other words ‘apart from’ can replace except (for) and besides.
Examples:
| (a) |
I don’t like sports except (for) basketball. |
| (b) | Besides / In addition to basketball, I like tennis. Apart from / In addition to basketball, I like tennis. |
| (a) | ‘apart from’ can replace both besides (to add) and except (to reduce). |
| (b) | After the negative form, except, besides, apart from has the same meaning. Examples: He has nothing left besides / except / apart from his bicyle. |
| (c) | ‘apart from’ can be followed by verb + ing. Examples: Apart from being sick, he can still enjoy his food. |
SENTENCE CONNECTORS:
ALSO, HOWEVER, THEREFORE
‘sentence connectors’ are words that link or connect phrases, clauses, or ideas to ensure clear communication. The first sentence must end with a period (.).
Pay attention to the following sentences:
| (a) | John was fast. However, Mary was very slow. |
| (b) | John was fast. Mary, however, was very slow. |
| (c) | John was fast. Mary was very slow, however. |
| (a) | The sentence connector ‘however’ can be placed at the front, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence. |
| (b) | If we use a sentence connector to connect two sentences, the first sentence ends with a period (.). Sometimes a semicolon (;) can be used, but do not use a comma (,). |
| (c) | The sentence connectors 'also' and 'therefore' are always placed at the beginning of a sentence. |
| A. | THE GROUP OF SENTENCE CONNECTORS CONTAINING NEARLY IDETINTICAL INFORMATION AS 'ALSO' WITH THE SAME MEANING AS CONJUNCTION 'AND' |
| B. | THE GROUP OF SENTENCE CONNECTORS CONTAINING NEARLY IDENTICAL INFORMATION AS 'HOWEVER' WITH THE SAME MEANING AS CONJUNCTION 'BUT', 'YET' |
| C. | THE GROUP OF SENTENCE CONNECTORS CONTAINING NEARLY IDENTICAL INFORMATION AS 'THEREFORE' WITH THE SAME MEANING AS CONJUNCTION 'SO' |
| D. | THE GROUP OF SENTENCE CONNECTORS CONTAINING NEARLY IDENTICAL INFORMATION AS WHILE |
| E. | THE GROUP OF SENTENCE CONNECTORS CONTAINING NEARLY IDENTICAL INFORMATION AS 'AFTERWARDS' WITH THE SAME MEANING AS CONJUNCTION 'AFTER' |
The ‘sentence connectors’ below connect two types of nearly identical information:
also , as a matter of fact, besides, furthermore, in addition, in fact, in point of fact, likewise, moreover, on top of that, similarly, what’s more.
Examples:
| (1) | Also: She is pretty. Also, she is smart. | ||||
| (2) | Likewise: The food is excellent. Likewise, the drink is fantastic. | ||||
| (3) | In fact (as a matter of fact, in point of fact); | ||||
| She doesn’t mind. In fact, she is very happy. | |||||
| (4) | In addition: | ||||
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| (5) | Furthermore - Moreover - Besides: | ||||
| I don’t like the room. Furthermore / Moreover / Besides), it is dirty. | |||||
| (6) | Similarly: | ||||
| Girls wear fashionable clothes. Similarly, boys use different types of cars. | |||||
| (7) | On top of that: | ||||
| On top of that, we need more money. | |||||
| (Di atas itu, kita memerlukan uang.) |
The ‘sentence connectors’ below connect two contrasting types of information:
after all, all/just the same, alternatively, conversely, even so, however, in contrast / by contrast, in spite of / despite that, instead, nevertheless/nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, still.
Examples:
| (a) | Still: He has treated you badly. Still, he is your father. |
| (b) | Nevertheless: This film is good. Nevertheless, the other one is better. |
| (c) | On the other hand: I still want to work in this company. On the other hand, I want to have a good salary. |
| (d) | On the contrary: It is very hot at the beach. On the contrary, it’s very cold in the mountain. |
| (e) | In contrast / By contrast: It was hot yesterday. In contrast / By contrast, it is very cold today. |
| (f) | Conversely: Put the flour to the eggs. Conversely, you can put the eggs to the flour. |
| (g) | In spite of that, despite that: He fell off his bike. In spite of that / Despite that, he didn’t hurt himself. |
| (h) | Even so: You made three mistakes. Even so, this is good work. |
| (i) | All/Just the same: He sometimes lies. All the same, I still think he is a good boy. |
| (j) | After all: After all, he has a lot of money. He should buy a big house. |
| (k) | Instead: This time there was no money to win. Instead, they awarded certificates. |
| (l) | Alternatively: We can take the bus. Alternatively, we could take the train. |
| (m) | Otherwise: You’d better attend her wedding party. Otherwise, she will get angry. |
| (a) | We can say: On the one hand I want to work in this company, but on the other hand I want to have a good salary. ‘on the other hand’ is used to add new and different information. |
| (b) | ‘on the contrary’ is used to express something that is the opposite of what was said previously. |
| (c) | ‘in contrast’ is used to express something that is clearly very different and in contrast to something else. |
The ‘sentence connectors’ below connect two pieces of cause and effect information:
Examples:
as a result (of this), consequently / as a consequence / in consequence, hence, then, therefore, thus,
| (1) | Therefore: |
| He is not here. Therefore, you cannot see him. | |
| (2) | Thus: |
| She is the youngest child. Thus, you have to take care of her. | |
| (3) | As a result: |
| The company had poor management. As a result (of this), it went bankrupt. | |
| (4) | Consequently: |
| The sales were poor. Consequently, the employees got a low raise this year. | |
| (5) | Then: |
| The maid is off today. Then, we have to do the housework by ourselves. |
The ‘sentence connectors’ below connect two pieces of information that occur at the same time.
| - | at the same time, at that time, simultaneously, coincidentally, concurrently |
| - | Meanwhile, meantime, in the mean time, for the time being, for now, for the moment |
| (1) | at the same time, simultaneously, coincidentally | ||||||||
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| (2) | meanwhile, in the mean time, for the time being, for now, for the moment | ||||||||
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‘sentence connector’ which connects two types of information that occur sequentially.
| - | after that, by and by, immediately, later on, next, shortly, soon, subsequently, then (kemudian) |
| - | before that, before long, formerly, in earlier times, in former times |
| - | at present , at the present time, in the past, in the future, in these times, nowadays, today, tomorrow, yesterday. |
| (1) | after that, soon, then, subsequently, next, later on, immediately, by and by, shortly | ||||||||||||
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| (2) | before that, before long, formerly, in former times, in earlier times | ||||||||||||
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| (3) | at present, in the past, in the future, yesterday, tomorrow, today, in these times | ||||||||||||
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ADVERBS WITH REVERSAL OF WORD ORDER
Examples:
| (a) | Never have I met such a beautiful woman. |
| (b) | Not a word did he say. |
| (c) | Not until he wins enough will he stop. |
| (d) | Not until you told me had I realized it. |
| (e) | Hardly had I begun the meeting when I was called by him. |
| (f) | Not once has he helped us. |
| (g) | Nowhere could I hide. |
| (h) | ‘I don’t like this.’ ‘Neither/Nor does he.’ |
| (i) | This is not important, nor is that. |
| (j) | He didn’t see it, and neither did I. |
Examples:
| (a) | At no time will I give my consent to the plan. |
| (b) | In/Under no circumstances will I do it for him. |
| (c) | On no account will I do it. |
| (d) | In no way will I help him. |
Examples:
| (a) | ‘I am tired.’ ‘So am I.’ |
| (b) | ‘She works hard.’ ‘So do I.’ |
| (c) | ‘I will volunteer.’ ‘So will we.’ |
Examples:
| (a) | Not only will he come, but he will also bring some food. |
| Not only will he come, he will bring some food too. | |
| (b) | No sooner had he gone out than it started raining. |
| (c) | His brother doesn’t like fishing, and nor does he. |
Contoh:
| (a) | Only once has he done this. |
| (b) | Only after finishing school will she leave her hometown for further study. |
| (c) | Only if you go, will I go. |
| (d) | Only when it does not rain for three months, will the plants die. |
| (e) | Only by chance did I meet him. |
| (f) | Only later did he realize that he had been wrong. |
| (g) | Only then did I know what had happened. |
| (h) | Only by shouting was she able to make herself heard. |
| (i) | Only in this way will he feel comfortable. |
Examples:
| (a) | Under the bed are some shoes. |
| (b) | Next to the bathroom is the bedroom. |
| (c) | Far beyond the village is a mountain. |
| (d) | There comes the bus. |
| (e) | Here’s the postman. |
Some verbs that indicate direction and are intransitive verbs can use inverted constructions, including: climb, come, fall, fly, go, hang, jump, lie, live, march, roll, run, sit, skate, slide, stand, swim, turn, walk. Prepositions used include above, down, from, in, on, out / out of, over, round, up and to.
Examples:
| (a) | To the city marched the people. |
| (b) | On the chair sits the boy. |
| (c) | Above her head went his blow. |
We do not use pronouns in the sentence form above.
Examples:
| (a) | ‘ |
| (b) | ‘ |
Examples:
| (a) | Up went the balloon. |
| (b) | Round the corner turned the car. |
| (c) | Down the well jumped the goat. |
Examples:
| (a) | Little do I know about him. |
| (b) | Little does he know what people think of him. |
| (c) | Often / Many a time did we discuss that. |
Examples:
| (a) | Great was his surprise. |
| (b) | Slow was she to catch the ball. |
Examples:
| (a) | He performed so well that the crowd applauded. |
| So well did he perform, that the crowd applauded. | |
| (b) | Mary was so attractive that all the boys turned to look at her. |
| So attractive was Mary, that all the boys turned to look at her. |
Examples:
| (a) | Such is the importance of the meeting that you have to attend it. |
| (b) | Such was her beauty that everybody was fascinated. |
Examples:
| (a) | May God bless you. |
| (b) | May your dreams come true. |
Examples:
| (a) | I understand, as does my friend, that it is good. |
| (b) | The drink was great, as was the food. |
| (b) | The boys are believed to be stronger than are the girls. |
We do not do inversion if we use pronouns.
| X (a) | |
| (b) | I understand, as does Tom, that it is good. |
Examples:
| (a) | If you should need any help from me, please let me know. |
| Should you need any help from me, please let me know. | |
| (b) | If you had asked me to do it, I would have done it. |
| Had you asked me to do it, I would have done it. | |
| (c) | He would be upset if you were not to accept it |
| He would be upset, were you not to accept it. | |
| (d) | If he hadn’t bought it for me, I would have asked my aunt to buy it for me. |
| Had he not bought it for me, I would have asked my aunt to buy it for me. |
The abbreviated negative form is not used in inversion. We do not say: Hadn’t he bought it for me,…
Examples:
| (a) | If it were not for my secretary, the meeting would be cancelled/canceled. |
| Were it not for my secretary, the meeting would be cancelled/canceled. | |
| (b) | If it had not been for his parents, he would not have had such a good all-round education. |
| Had it not been for his parents, he would not have had such a good all-round education. |
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
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Examples:
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‘Participial phrases’ are phrases that contain the past participle or the present participle (verb + ing). Usually these phrases start with the past participle or the present participle (verb + ing).
Examples:
| (a) | Not knowing what to say, he said nothing. |
| (b) | The children left the room rushing home. |
The ‘tense’ in participial phrases is neutral, depending on the tense of the main verb in the sentence. However, specifically for the perfect form of participial phrases, we can determine the tense of the participial phrase based on the tense of the main verb in the sentence.
Having + past participle
| (a) | Having worked hard, he takes a long holiday once a year. |
| (b) | Having worked hard, he took a long holiday. |
For sentences with the main verb in the present tense and the future tense, participial phrases containing the perfect form mean the present perfect tense. Example: Having finished working at/on the weekend, he goes out with friends. This means:
After he has finished working at/on the weekend, he goes out with friends.
This sentence means:
After he had passed the driving test, he got a driving licence / driver’s-license.
| (1) | 'participial phrases' are adjective phrases, namely phrases that describe noun phrases. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘participial phrases’, as adverbial phrases, describe the entire sentence. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | ‘participial phrases’, as adverbial phrases, describe the entire sentence and are placed at the end of the sentence being described. | ||||||||||||||
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Examples:
The sentence above can also use the construction preposition + verb + ing (in/by + verb + ing) Examples:
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| (4) | ‘Participial phrases’ are also considered to function as adverbial phrases because these participial phrases are often placed at the beginning and end of sentences. | ||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | If we put a participial phrase in front of a sentence, then we must start the sentence with the subject of the participial phrase. We cannot say: Thinking of having a party tonight, plenty of things were bought by Jane. |
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| (2) | Sentences that start with participial phrases can be used with the ‘preparatory’ it and there, that is, it and there function as the subject of the sentence, but some people consider this wrong. Examples:
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| A. | The form like an adjective clause | ||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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| B. | There + be + someone + participial phrase (verb + ing) | ||||
| Example 1: | |||||
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| subject + be + preposition + place + participial phrase (verb + ing) | |||||
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Example 2: |
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| C. | The form after the verb ‘lean’ such as: lie, run, sit, stand, walk (verbs related to the subject position) | ||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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| D. | The form after the verbs ‘waste’ and ‘spend’ + an expression of time / money | ||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| E. | Special combinations with the verb ‘have’ + noun + verb + ing: have + fun/trouble/difficulty + verb + ing, have a good time / a hard time / a difficult time + verb + ing (the subject of the sentence is the subject of the ‘participial phrase’) | ||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| F. | After the verb ‘have’ (the subject of the sentence is not the subject of the ‘present participial phrase’, but the noun after ‘have’ is the subject of the ‘present participial phrase’) | |||||||
| (1) | with thepresent participial phrase. | |||||||
| Examples: | ||||||||
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| (2) | with the past participial phrase. | |||||||
| Examples: | ||||||||
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| G. | The form with the verb ‘go/come’ + participial phrase (verb + ing) | ||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| H. | (the form go + verb + ing is also considered a gerund phrase) After ‘verbs of perception’ (verbs related to the five senses): feel, hear, listen to, observe, see, watch | ||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| I. | After the verb ‘get’ + past/present participle with the meaning: be able to make something work | ||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| J. | After the verbs: catch, find, keep, leave, send + past/present participle | ||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
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| K. | After the verb 'make' and verbs related to 'ordering or wishing' | ||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||
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| L. | After ‘prepositions’ and ‘conjunctions’ After ‘prepositions’: after, before, on, without, instead of, in spite of |
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| Examples: | |||||||||||||||||
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| After 'conjunction': as, since, when, while, whenever, once, until | |||||||||||||||||
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Examples: |
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| M. | After the verbs: consider, report, reveal, justify, say, believe | ||||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||||
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‘Adverbs’ can be placed either immediately before or after ‘participial phrases’.
Examples:
| (a) | Always thinking of others, she dedicated herself to doing social work. |
| (b) | Slowly combing her hair, she kept on talking. |
| (c) | Being completely a diligent student, he got the highest score in almost every subject. |
| (d) | Not having behaved politely, he was asked to leave the room. |
| A. | TIME: after, if, when, as, while | |||||||||
| (1) | if… /when… | |||||||||
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| (2) | as... , while | |||||||||
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| (3) | after... | |||||||||
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| B. | RESULT: So that… | ||||||
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Examples:
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| C. | CAUSE: Because… | ||||||||||||||||
| Usually these participles are used with the verbs be, have, know, see, wish which are not used in sentences in the progressive tense. | |||||||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| D. | MANNER | ||||||
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Examples:
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| E. | MEANS | ||||
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Examples:
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MORE ON ARTICLES:
THE, A, AN
Here is a summary of the concept of using the article ‘the’.
| (1) | ‘the’ is used to express something that has been previously identified. This happens because it has been mentioned before. |
| Examples: He bought a book. The book cost three dollars. ‘the book’ yang dimaksud adalah the book that cost three dollars |
| (2) | ‘the’ is used if the identity of an object has been identified by a word that describes the noun which is placed after the noun. |
| Examples: the scenery of the village, the rules of the game, the book which I wrote, the book on the table, the hotel overlooking the sea, the book bought by him |
The underlined words above describe the noun so that the noun is identified.
| (3) | ‘the’ is used if something is the only one that exists in this world. |
| Examples: the sun, the sky, the world, the earth, the equator, the human race |
| (4) | ‘the’ is used to express something that is generally known and something that is an institution that is used together by society. |
| Examples: the television, the radio, the newspaper, the bus |
| (5) | ‘the’ is used to indicate objects in general that represent a class group. |
| Examples: The bird has feather. (‘the bird’ represents the class group of birds.) |
| (1) | the Time and Season Indicator |
| in the past, at the present time, in the morning, in the night, in the end of the year, in the middle of April, at the beginning of the month, in (the) winter, in (the) spring, in (the) autumn, in (the) summer, at the moment, for the time being, during the year |
| (2) | the position of objects |
| the back, the bottom, the centre/center, the exterior, the front, the inside, the interior, the middle, the outside, the side, the top |
| (3) | names of planets |
| the planet Mars, the planet Mercury, the planet Venus Jika tanpa kata planet, kita tidak menggunakan the seperti: Venus, Mars. |
| (4) | names of newspapers |
| the Daily News, the Jakarta Post, the New York Times, the Washington Post |
| (5) | names of parts of the body |
| the chest, the eyes, the hand, the hair, the head, the knee, the leg |
| (6) | names of the branches of the governemnt |
| the executive branch, the judicial branch, the legislative branch |
| (7) | names of armed forces and law enforcement |
| the Air Corps, the Allied Forces, the armed forces, the army, the Diplomatic Corps, the force(s), the highway patrol, the police, the navy / the Navy, the Police Force / the police force, the US Air Force |
| (8) | names of political parties |
| the Conservative Party / the Conservatives, the Democratic Party / the Democrats, the Labour/Labor Party, the Republican Party / the Republicans Jika tidak ada kata ‘party’ kita menambahkan ‘s’ pada nama partai tersebut. |
| (9) | names of organizations and foundations |
| the Girl Scouts, the South East Asian Countries, the United Nations |
| (10) | names of historical periods |
| the First World War / World War I (tanpa the), the French Revolution, the Middle Ages, the Ming Dynasty, |
| (11) | names of official positions or job titles |
| the Chairman, the Director, the Governor, the King, the President, the Mayor, the Prime Minister, the Queen, the Secretary of State |
| (12) | names of declarations, decrees,.etc. |
| the Magna Charta, the Missouri Compromise, the Supersemar |
| (13) | emphasis on uniqueness |
| the employee of the month, the man of the year, the player of the year, the specialist |
| (14) | A place we all know |
| the airport, the bookstore, the cinema, the gym, the home, the hotel, the hospital, the mall, the mountains, the restaurant, the office, the school, the seaside, the station, the supermarket, the swimming pool, the toilet |
| (15) | parts of the house that we are familiar with |
| the bedroom, the kitchen, the door, the window, the bathroom, the sitting-room, the garage, the attic, the ceiling, the roof, the basement |
| (16) | with the word 'same + noun' |
| the same age, the same colour/color, the same height, the same hobby, the same school |
| (17) | With the construction of 'the + adjective/noun + a name' | |
| (a) | the late George Washington, the singer Britney Spears, | |
| (b) | the actress Sandra Bullock | |
| (c) | the poet Shakespeare, the director John William | |
| (d) | the greatest scientist Albert Einstein, the well-known President Soekarno | |
| (18) | show someone famous | |
| Jacky Chan, the film/movie star. | ||
| (b) | Paul Samuelson, the economist. | |
| (19) | Refer to someone or something that is already clear | |
| (a) | the carpenter, the milkman, the newspaper boy | |
| (b) | the book, the paper, the salt, the shoes | |
| (20) | Refer to inadequacy (in negative sentences) |
| I want to buy a car, but I don’t have the money. |
| (21) | Show something as the best, desired, famous | |
| (a) | This is the life I want. | |
| (b) | She is the man of the year. | |
| (22) | the name of a famous book |
| the Bible, the Koran, the Odyssey, the Ramayana, the Tripitaka |
| (23) | the name of a shop or workplace |
| the baker’s, the barber’s, the butcher’s, the dentist’s, the florist’s, the travel agent’s, the vet’s |
| (1) | the + abstract noun/verb + ing + of phrase | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | the + comparative adjective/adverb, the + comparative adjective/adverb | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | the + adjective | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | the + superlative form | ||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | expressions of quantity + of phrase some expressions of quantity: most, all, much, many, some, one, a lot of, few, a little, none |
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Examples:
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| (1) | used to mean 'one' |
| a book, a pen, a table, a student, a lawyer, a man, a girl |
| (2) | used to mean 'any, every' |
| A rabbit is an animal. (Any rabbit is an animal.) |
| (3) | used instead of 'one' before some numbers and fractions |
| a fifth, a fourth, a half, a sixth, a tenth |
| (4) | used to mean 'per' |
| 2 dollars a box, 3 glasses a day, twice a week, once a month, 12 dollars a piece |
| (5) | used before sb’s name to show that the speaker does not know the person |
| a Miss Lou, a Mr Ross, a Mrs White |
| (6) | used to show that a person is like sb |
| a Pele, a Jet Lee, a Rudy Hartono |
| (7) | used to show that a a work of art is made by sb Menunjukkan sesuatu sebagai karya seorang artis terkenal |
| a Rembrant, a Van Gough |
| (8) | used to refer to a profession |
| an actor, a doctor, a lawyer, a nurse, a policeman, a teacher |
| (9) | used before a verb ing | ||||
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crashing, weeping, singing, knocking
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| (10) | used with nouns derived from verbs and singular abstract nouns that do not have a plural form |
| a cry, an excess of, a help, a knowledge of, a pity/shame/wonder/mercy, a relief, a sleep, a smell of, a think, a wash, a weep |
| (11) | used to indicate a general feeling of pain |
| a backache, a headache, a fever, a sore throat, a stomach-ache, a toothache |
| (12) | have the meaning of 'very' and used with 'most' | |
| (a) | a most eccentric man, a most interesting book | |
| (b) | most expensive perfume, most delicious soup | |
| (Don't use 'a' with uncountable nouns.) | ||
| (13) | used in front of two things considered as a single unit |
| a cup and saucer, a knife and fork |
| (14) | refer to someone as someone who is famous with a derogatory connotation (with the word ‘a little’) | |
| (a) | He is a little Hitler. | |
| (b) | He is a little Napoleon. | |
| (15) | used to show someone who is like someone famous with negative connotations |
| She is a mother Theresia (a great social worker). |
| (16) | use with a countable nouns that is defined | |
| (a) | A television is a piece of electrical equipment with a glass screen which can receive pictures and sound. | |
| (b) | A camera is an apparatus for taking photographs and moving pictures. | |
| (17) | used after the word 'such' and 'what' + a countable noun | |
| (a) | Such a good book is difficult to find. | |
| (b) | What a naughty boy you are. | |
| (18) | used to indicate something as something special when used with an ‘uncountable noun’ |
| a highly priced beer, a long-kept wine |
ZERO ARTICLE
| (1) | Plural nouns do not use the article ‘a’ but they can use the article ‘the’ or without the article to express something in general. |
| (the) jobs, (the) shoes, (the) parties, (the) animals |
| (2) | Uncountable nouns, material nouns, abstract nouns that indicate something in general do not use the article 'a'. | |
| (a) | Uncountable Nouns: | |
| information, poetry, furniture, news | ||
| (b) | Material Nouns: | |
| air, cloth, coffee, gas, milk, paper, pepper, rice, sugar, tea, water, wheat, wine, wood | ||
| (c) | Abstract Nouns: | |
| bravery, courage, happiness, intelligence, wisdom | ||
| (3) | The words 'television', breakfast, lunch, dinner, next week, last Sunday do not use an article | |
| Examples: | ||
| (a) | I watch television every day. | |
| (b) | My mother prepares breakfast for me every morning. | |
| (c) | I have lunch at 12.00 pm and dinner at 7.00 pm. | |
| (d) | She went abroad last Sunday. | |
| (e) | They will come back next week. | |
| (4) | The combination of the verb ‘go + noun’ which states going to a mentioned place to do what should be done there. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Contoh: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (a) | go to school, go to college, go to university (untuk belajar) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (b) | go to hospital (untuk berobat), go to church (untuk beribadah) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| We can say 'go to the school', 'go to the church' with the meaning: go to school and hospital but not to study or worship, maybe to do something else there. In American English, we can say: go to the hospital with the intention of getting treatment, go to the university to study. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Summary of phrases that do not use the articles 'the' and 'a' | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| (5) | Languages, ​subjects and sports | |
| - | Chinese, Cantonese, Dutch, English, Indonesian, Italian | |
| - | arts, biology, geography, history, literature, mathematics, medicine, physics | |
| - | athletics, basketball, chess, football, gymnastics, karate, tennis | |
| (6) | Specific country names and city names | |
| - | Brazil, Canada, Egypt, France, Peru, | |
| - | Beijing, Jakarta, London, Los Angeles, New York, Tokyo | |
| (7) | Names of holidays, seasons, days, months and times |
| Easter, Ramadan, Christmas, New year’s Day, September, on Tuesday, in (the) winter, by night, at night, at midday, at midnight, at noon, in 2004, at 6.00 |
| (8) | A person's job title does not use 'the' after words 'the position of, the role of, the post of'. | |
| - | The position of Head of the Organization / Chairman of the Company | |
| - | The position of Head of Department / Manager of Department | |
| (9) | Articles are often omitted in paired expressions. | |
| especially those preceeded by a preposistion. from head to toe/foot (over the whole length of one’s body), from beginning to end, hand in hand, arm in arm, husband and wife, day after day (for many days), on land and sea, face to face, from top to bottom, with hat and coat, inch by inch, step by step, bit by bit, day by day |
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| (10) | Articles are not used with expressions that state tools and transportation, especially with the 'by + noun' construction. |
| by radio, by telephone, by bus, by plane, by train, on foot |
| (11) | The article ‘the’ may not be used in the construction ‘of phrase’ which uses plural countable nouns or uncountable concrete nouns. |
| (the) furniture of the nineteenth century, (the) animals of the tropical countries. |
| (12) | Names of disease |
| fever, malaria, cancer, diabetes, low/high blood pressure, influenza |
| (13) | Prepositional Phrases |
| on demand, in debt, at ease, by day, at interest |
| (14) | Verb + Noun |
| take breath, catch fire, leave home, set sail, lose interest, lose heart, give ear |
| (15) | Abbreviations in the form of acronyms (abbreviations that can be read like words) | |
| (a) | UNESCO | |
| (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) | ||
| (b) | NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) | |
| (c) | OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) | |
| (d) | NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) | |
| (16) | Articles are often omitted in: announcements, notes, newspaper headlines, slogans and commentary on the progress of a match. | |||||||
| (a) | Advertisement writing | |||||||
| - Married man looking for two-room flat. Phone 540 9802. | ||||||||
| (b) | Instructions to do something | |||||||
| - pour milk into glass, wait few minutes, then heat in microwave and serve. | ||||||||
| (c) | short announcements in phrases | |||||||
| - Information Desk, Car Call | ||||||||
| (d) | Informal notes | |||||||
| - buy magazine, went to doctor, reserve seat. | ||||||||
| (e) | Titles of news | |||||||
| - Man Killed Fishing. - Call from Heaven |
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| (f) | Slogan - Power to (the) people | |||||||
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| (g) | sports match commentaries | |||||||
| - David to John . . . and goal. - Nice shot but fail . . . then . . . - Good try . . . fault. - Throw in by Jim . . . |
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GERUND PHRASES
‘gerund phrases’ are nouns derived from the infinitive + ing verb (verb + ing). Thus, gerund phrases can fill all noun positions in a sentence.
| Learning English grammar is important. | → | Something is important. |
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| Driving carelessly is dangerous. | → | Something is dangerous. |
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| My hobby is jogging. | → | My hobby is something. |
The ‘tense’ in gerund phrases is neutral and depends on the main verb. Especially for the perfect form of gerund phrases, we can determine the tense of the gerund phrases.
having + the past participle
For main verbs in the present and future tense, gerunds containing the perfect form mean the present perfect tense.
Examples: She will never admit having done it (the future tense).
This sentence has the meanings:
| (a) | She has done it. |
| (b) | She will never admit it. |
For main verbs in the past tense, gerund phrases containing the perfect form mean the past perfect tense.
Examples:
His having done that made him embarrassed (the past tense).
This sentence has the meanings:
| (a) | He had done it. |
| (b) | It made him embarrassed. |
For the negative form, we simply add 'not' in front of the gerund phrase.
Examples:
She will approve of his not wanting to be a doctor.
|
A. |
‘gerund phrases’ are placed after ‘possessive adjectives’ (my, his, her, our, your, their, its) and possessive nouns (her sister's, Catherine's) | ||||||||||||
| possessive adjective + gerund His arriving late will not be forgiven. |
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| possessive noun + gerund Her sister’s arriving late will not be forgiven. |
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Examples:
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| B. | ‘gerund phrases’ are used with ‘With + someone/something + gerund’ | ||||
| With + someone/something + gerund With Caroline coming late, everybody was upset. With the wind blowing hard, the rain was coming in. |
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With Caroline coming late berarti Because Caroline came late
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| C. | ‘gerund phrases’ ditempatkan setelah preposisi (kata depan) | ||||||||||||||||||
| preposition + gerund He insisted on joining the picnic. |
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Examples:
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| 'by' in the sentence above means 'using a particular method' (by means of), while 'on/upon' means 'when', and 'in' means as a result of (as a result of) |
| D. | ‘gerunds’ after the preposition to | ||||
| The ‘participial adjective’ (adjective ending in -ed) and 'verb + to' below must be followed by 'a gerund' because 'to' following these verbs is a preposition, not an infinitive: | |||||
| adjective (ending in -ed) + to + gerund verb + to + gerund |
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| Examples: | |||||
| be accustomed to, be addicted to, be averse to, be dedicated to, be disposed to, get round to, given to, look forward to, object to, be opposed to, prefer (doing something to something else), used to | |||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| E. | 'gerund phrases' are placed after the 'object pronouns' (me, you, them, us, him, her, it) | ||||||||||||
| verb + object/object pronoun + gerund I don’t mind her opening the window. |
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| Examples: | |||||||||||||
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| For verb + object pronoun + gerund, the main verb used are a specific verbs. Some of these verbs are: miss, mind, dislike, not mind, understand, remember, like. |
| F. | ‘gerund phrases’ are placed in front of ‘of phrases’ | ||||
| the/his + gerund + of phrase the/his selling of merchandise |
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| Examples: | |||||
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| G. | ‘gerund phrases’ are placed in front of ‘by phrases’ | ||||||
| the + gerund + by phrase the killing by the soldiers |
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| Examples: | |||||||
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| Sometimes 'of' can be removed, but the use 'of' still has more material value. | |||||||
| Examples: reporting the war in that country, creating all the paintings, the government’s releasing the new policy |
| H. | ‘gerund phrases’ are placed after the preposition ‘for’ to indicate purpose. | ||||||
| for + gerund phrases | |||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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Usage with 'for' refers to something general. To express something specific, we use infinitive phrases.
Examples: I need something to clean this ink stain?
| I. | ‘gerund phrases’ are placed after the adjectives | ||||
| the + adjective + gerund + of + noun phrase the careful handling of the problem has saved us a lot of money |
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| Examples: | |||||
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| ‘the’ in the sentence above can also be replaced with ‘possessive pronoun’ (his, her, our, their, my, your). |
| J. | ‘gerund phrases’ are used to express prohibitions |
| No + gerund | |
| Examples: | |
| No smoking!, No trespassing!, No eating!, No swimming!, No talking! |
| K. | 'gerunds' are used with 'There' | ||||||
| There + be + no + gerund | |||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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| L. | ‘gerund phrases’ are used with the following constructions: | |||||||||
| 1. | The construction with there is ... | |||||||||
| There is | + | no use (in) | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
| There is | + | no need | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
| There is | + | no harm in | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
| There is | + | no point in | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
| Examples: | ||||||||||
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| 2. | The construction with it is ... | |||||||||
| It is | + | (of) no use | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
| It is | + | no fun | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
| It is | + | no good | + | gerund phrase | ||||||
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Examples:
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| M. | ‘gerund phrases’ are used with the anticipatory ‘it’ | ||||
| It + be + adjective, + gerund | |||||
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Examples:
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| N. | ‘gerund phrases’ are used after verbs such as ‘enjoy’ | ||||
| subject + verb + gerund | |||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| Verbs that are similar to enjoy include: admit, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, can’t help, complete, consider, delay, deny, discuss, escape, fancy, finish, give up, keep (on), mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise/practice, quit, recall, recommend, resent, resist, risk, suggest, tolerate, understand |
| O. | 'gerund phrases' are used with the verb 'go' | ||||
| go + gerund | |||||
| Such a construction is also considered as a participial phrase. See the participial phrase topic. | |||||
| Examples: | |||||
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| P. | 'gerund phrases' are used to explain nouns. |
| ‘gerunds’ are also used to describe nouns and are placed in front of nouns. | |
| gerund + noun | |
| Examples: | |
| - a sleeping pill, a swimming pool, a drawing book, working hours |
| Q. | ‘gerund phrases’ sebagai ‘complement’ dari ‘adjective’ | ||||||
| adjective + gerund | |||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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| R. | ‘gerund phrases’ with a passive meaning. | ||||||||||
| ‘gerunds’ with a passive meaning are used with the verbs: need, require, deserve, be worth, want. | |||||||||||
| need/require/deserve/want/be worth + gerund | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
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| S. | ‘gerund phrases’ can be used after ‘nouns’ or ‘adjectives’ | ||||||
| noun/adjective + gerund | |||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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| The construction with an infinitive phrase is also possible with more or less the same meaning. Usually a good dictionary will tell you this. | |||||||
| Examples: | |||||||
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| (1) | If there is a real noun, it is preferred to the gerund. Examples: We are happy to see his action (daripada acting). |
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| (2) | The negative form in gerund phrases uses the adjective ‘no’. Examples:
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| (3) | We can also use ‘not’ in the following sentence constructions: Examples:
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| A. | Initial Position (di depan ‘gerund phrases’) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Adverbs that describe gerund phrases are placed in front of the gerund phrases. Examples:
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| B. | Final Position (di akhir ‘gerund phrases’) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Adverbs that describe gerund phrases are placed at the end of the gerund phrases. Examples:
Adverbs which describe gerund phrases can be changed into adjectives which explain gerund phrases because gerund phrases also function as noun phrases. Examples:
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INFINITIVE PHRASES
(INTRODUCTION)
‘infinitive phrases’ are phrases that begin with an infinitive verb. These phrases can function as noun phrases, adjective phrases or adverbial phrases. Some of these 'infinitive phrases' use to (with 'to') some without 'to'.
Examples:
| (a) | To do the job is easy (with ‘to’). |
| (b) | I saw him do the work (without ‘to’). |
The ‘tense’ in an infinitive phrase depends on the tense of the main verb.
Examples:
| (a) | He is glad to finish this on time. (the present tense) |
| (b) | I was not disappointed to hear the news. (the past tense) |
| (c) | We will be more than happy to help you. (the future tense) |
| (d) | It is nice to be talking to you. (the present tense) |
| (e) | He seems to have been having an argument. (the present tense) |
To express events in an infinitive phrase that occurred in the past (past time), we use the perfect form.
Examples:
| (a) | It is desirable to have done it earlier. |
| (b) | I am happy to have known you. |
The 'infinitive' can also be used to express an event that has just happened, as in the sentence. - He appears to have been fighting.
'the perfect form' in the infinitive is also used to express events in the past that are contrary to current reality.
Examples:
| (a) | He should have called, but he didn’t. |
| (b) | I would have told you, but I forgot. |
| active | progressive/continuous | passive | |
| present infinitive | to do | to be doing | to be done |
| perfect infinitive | to have done | to have been doing | to have been done |
THE NEGATIVE USE OF INFINITIVES (NOT)
‘not’ in the infinitive is placed in front of 'to' to become 'not to'.
Examples:
(a) We asked him not to do it again.
(b) He did not attend the meeting in order not to see her.
‘infinitive phrases’ versus ‘gerund phrases’
‘infinitive phrases’ and gerund phrases as subjects can use the present or the future tense, while for ‘the past tense’ and ‘passive sentences’, it is better to use gerund phrases.
Examples:
| (a) | To learn grammar is not easy. | (the present tense) |
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| Learning grammar is easy. | (the present tense) | |
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| (b) | To learn grammar will be easy. | (the future tense) |
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| Learning grammar will be easy. | (the future tense) | |
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| (c) | Understanding grammar was not easy. | (the past tense) |
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| (d) | Explaining it can be done tomorrow. | (the passive sentence) |
‘gerunds’ can also use the present tense if they refer to something general.
Examples:
| (a) | Finding a job is difficult. |
| (b) | Smoking is bad for us. |
INFINITIVE PHRASES AS NOUN PHRASES
| (1) | 'infinitive' used with adjective phrases | ||||||||||||
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Examples:
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| Adjectives that can be used with the to infinitive include: acceptable, difficult, due, fun, funny, impossible, important, likely, necessary, proper, right, rude, satisfactory, strange, vital, wrong |
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| (2) | 'infinitive phrases' used with object phrases | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | ‘infinitive phrase’ used with prepositional phrases. | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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Here are 3 models of using the to infinitive which have the same meaning:
| (a) | To finish the work (for us) is easy. |
| (to infinitive phrase + be + adjective). | |
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| (b) | It is easy (for us) to finish this work. |
| (It + be + adjective + to infinitive phrase). | |
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| (c) | This work is easy (for us) to finish. |
| (noun phrase + be + adjective + to infinitive phrase) | |
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(1) |
Sentence (b) above is preferred. {It is easy (for us) to finish this work}. |
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| (2) | If we want to use the subject of the actor in the sentence above, we can add for + object pronoun (me, us, him, her, you, them, it). Examples of adjectives that can use the preposition 'for': advantageous, advisable, beneficial, delightful, difficult, essential, fatal, fun, good, hard, hopeless, important, impossible, irrelevant, necessary, pleasant, preferable, satisfactory, unacceptable, useful, useless, vital, worthwhile. |
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| (3) | Especially for sentence type (b), we can also use the preposition of with the following adjectives: careful, careless, cruel, disloyal, generous, good, greedy, intelligent, kind, loyal, magnificent, nice, naughty, silly, splendid, unworthy. Examples:
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| (4) | The following adjectives can use 'for' and 'of': | ||||
| (5) | For the type of sentence that uses the expletive ‘it’, we can also use an adjective that comes from a verb, namely the ing participle, especially those related to feelings or emotions, and we use it with the preposition to if there is a pronoun. Examples of participial adjectives that can be used with infinitive phrases: alarming, amazing, amusing, annoying, boring, confusing, convincing, disappointing, disgusting, distressing, disturbing, embarrassing, entertaining, exciting, fascinating, frightening, interesting, intriguing, irritating, pleasing, puzzling, refreshing, relieving, satisfying, shocking, surprising, tiring, touching, troubling, worrying. Examples:
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| (6) | Some of the participial adjectives above can also use the preposition 'for'. Examples: It was embarrassing to/for him to do that. |
| (1) | 'to infinitive' may or may not use an object pronoun: | ||
Examples:
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| (a) | Verbs like want may or may not use an object pronoun. |
| (b) | Verbs that can be used like want, which may or may not use an object pronoun (object pronouns are optional) are: advise, beg, desire, expect, hate, like, love, need, prepare, promise, wish |
| (2) | to infinitive that cannot use an object pronoun: | ||
Examples:
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| Some verbs that do not require an object pronoun such as begin are afford, agree, appear, arrange, decide, demand, deserve, fail, forget, hesitate, hope, learn, manage, mean, offer, plan, pretend, refuse, regret, remember, seem, struggle, swear, threaten, try, volunteer, wait | |||
| We cannot say: |
| (3) | The use of to infinitive with verbs that are mostly related to feelings with the meaning of ordering, motivating, forcing, wanting or causing. The following verbs are verbs that must use object pronouns: | ||
| allow, ask, declare, encourage, forbid, force, hire, instruct, invite, order, permit, persuade, remind, require, teach, tell, urge, warn, | |||
Examples:
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| Passive sentences of the sentence types above: | |||
| He advised me to find a new job. I was advised (by him) to find a new job. |
If we want to use the actor of the activity (by him), it is better to place by him immediately after the past participle, not at the end of the sentence: I was advised to find a new job by him.
| (4) | The use of the to infinitive with the verb 'find' | ||||||
| 'to infinitive' used with the verb find has the following sentence pattern: | |||||||
| subject + verb + noun phrase + (to be) + noun/adjective/prepositional phrase / adverb | |||||||
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| The verbs that can be used in the sentence pattern above are: assume, believe, consider, declare, discover, feel, imagine, judge, know, presume, prove, report, represent, reveal, show, suppose, think, understand |
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Examples:
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| Apart from 'to be', we can also use other to infinitives. | |||||||
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Examples:
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| The above sentences are often used in the passive form. | |||||||
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Examples:
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| (5) | the use of the 'to infinitive' with the verbs: appoint, choose, consider, elect, name, nominate, select | ||
| Examples: | |||
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| The sentence above can also be changed to | |||
| They appointed him (as) the class leader. |
'to be' and 'as' in the two sentences above are optional.
| (6) | The use of 'infinitives' as subjective complements. | ||||||||
| noun phrase + be + infinitive (with or without to) | |||||||||
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‘to’ is optional if the sentence uses the verb ‘do’.
| (7) | The use of infinitive phrases ('with to' and 'without too' as appositive nouns). | ||||
| An appositive noun is a noun that follows another noun and refers to the same person or thing. | |||||
| noun phrase + infinitive (with or without to) | |||||
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‘to’ is optional if the sentence uses the verb ‘do’.
| (8) | the use of 'to' with the verbs seem, appear | ||||||
Examples:
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‘to be’ is optional and infinitives other than to be, namely to have, cannot be omitted, as in example (c) above.
| (9) | Contruction: It takes ... / It suits ... + to infinitive | ||||||
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| (10) | Construction: subject + verb + it + complement + to infinitive | ||||||
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| The verbs believe, consider, feel can be used with the above construction. |
| (11) | Construction: There is no need/reason + to infinitive | ||||
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| (1) | the infinitive that has its own subject | ||||||||||||
Examples:
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| (2) | After certain verbs. | ||||||||||||
| For certain verbs that have an object pronoun, the object pronoun must be in the form of a for phrase. | |||||||||||||
Examples:
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| Verbs that can be used together with the for phrase are: | |||||||||||||
| ask, cannot stand, hope, look, love, not care, pay, plan, prefer, prepare, wait, want, wish | |||||||||||||
| 'for phrases' can also be used with the verb take/suit. | |||||||||||||
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Examples:
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The verbs 'like', 'hate', 'mean' can be used with the for construction in informal American English, but not in British English.
Examples:
| (a) | I would like for you to come along. |
| (b) | He hates for people to scream. |
| (c) | You didn’t mean for me to leave, did you? |
| (3) | The use of infinitives starting with it indicates possibility, necessity, importance, urgency, frequency and assessment. | ||||||||||||||||
| Examples of such adjectives are: common, easy, essential, good, healthy, impossible, nice, normal, pointless, rare, right, (un)important, (un)necessary, (un)usual, vital, wrong) | |||||||||||||||||
Examples:
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| (4) | the use of infinitives starting with subject pronouns | ||||||||||||
| The adjectives used are part of the adjectives that express a feeling of importance or value of an event. Examples of such 'adjectives': anxious, delighted, eager, glad, happy |
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Examples:
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| (5) | Use after nouns. Some nouns that can be used are time, a good/bad idea, aim, blunder, objective, plan, mistake, need, request, shame, | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Examples:
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| (6) | use after something, nothing, anything | ||||||||||||||||
Examples:
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INFINITIVE PHRASES AS ADJECTIVE PHRASES
This 'infinitive phrase' describes a noun and is placed after the noun it describes.
| (1) | ‘infinitive’ yang berfungsi sebagai frasa sifat biasanya menerangkan kata benda abstrak (abstract noun phrases) yang berasal dari ‘verb’ atau ‘adjective’. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Examples of nouns derived from verbs: arrangement, conclusion, confidence, decision, encouragement, hope, intention, motivation, proposal, request, struggle, suggestion, temptation, tendency |
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| Examples of nouns derived from adjectives: advantage, advice, certainty, impatience, necessity, pleasure, reluctance |
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| Examples of nouns derived from participial adjectives: amazement, disappointment, dissatisfaction, excitement, satisfaction, surprise |
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| (2) | 'infinitives' which explain the pronouns/nouns | ||||||||||||||||||||
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| We can also use the superlative adjective | |||||||||||||||||||||
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| Passive and active forms are also possible in the following sentences: | |||||||||||||||||||||
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INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO
| (1) | The use of the ‘infinitive without to’ with the verbs have, help, let, make and verbs related to the five senses such as: feel, hear, listen, to look at, notice, observe, overhear, see, watch | ||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | When used in passive sentences, the verbs above use the to infinitive. | ||||
Examples:
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| (2) | ‘to’ is optional when used with the verb 'help'. | ||||
| (3) | After the verbs feel, hear, listen, to look at, notice, observe, overhear, see, watch, we can use verb + ing. |
| (2) | Usage after modal auxiliary verb | ||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | Usage after ‘why (not)’ | ||||
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Examples:
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| (4) |
Usage with and, or, except, than, as, like, rather than, as well as
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Examples:
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| (5) | Usage with the verb ‘do’ and after ‘be’ | ||||
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Examples:
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| (6) | Used with the verb 'do' for emphasis | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (7) | After the word 'but' | ||||
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Examples:
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| (8) | rather than + subject + infinitive | ||||
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Examples:
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| (9) | Use as an ‘appositive noun’ and ‘object noun phrase’ | ||||
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Examples:
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INFINITIVE PHRASES AS ADVERBIAL PHRASES
| (1) | 'adverbials of sentences' which express the development of the conversation | ||||
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Examples:
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| (2) | 'adverbial phrases that express the narrative or sequence of a story | ||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | Infinitives used with see, hear + you'd... (you would) to express an incorrect impression (to see... you'd think...) | ||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | Infinitive Phrases of Purpose. (Infinitives that express purpose) | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (1) | In sentences (c) and (d) above, we have to add for in front of the object pronoun because the subject of to see is her and the subject of to be correct is the sentence. | ||||
| (2) | If we use in order for somebody + to infinitive, we must still mention the object. Compare:
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| (2) | Infinitive Phrases of Condition (infinitives that express condition) | ||||||||
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Examples:
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| (3) | Infinitive Phrases of Result (infinitives that express results) | ||||
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Examples:
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| (4) | Infinitive Phrases of Cause (infinitives that express cause) | ||||||||
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Examples:
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Examples:
| (a) | I am afraid to sleep alone. |
| (b) | She is fortunate to have you. |
| (c) | I am sure to succeed. |
Adjectives that can be used in the example above are:
anxious, astonished, careful, certain, content, crazy, curious, delighted, determined, difficult, eager, easy, free, glad, good, happy, hard, hesitant, impossible, lucky, motivated, nice, patient, pleased, prepared, proud, ready, reluctant, sad, shocked, sorry, surprised, (un)able, upset, welcome, willing
For adjectives in the form of present participles which have an active meaning, the expletive it is used at the front of the sentence.
Examples:
| (a) | It is disgusting to see the movie. |
| (b) | It is pleasing to go out with you. |
Examples:
| (a) | She is too good to be beaten. |
| (b) | They are too slow to finish on time. |
| (c) | The machine ran too slowly to produce as wanted. |
| (d) | We didn’t play well enough to win the game. |
| (e) | They speak clearly enough to make him understand. |
EITHER (OF), NEITHER (OF), EITHER,... OR, NEITHER... NOR, ANY OF, NONE OF, BOTH (OF), BOTH... AND, NOT ONLY... BUT ALSO
‘either’ means one of two / the other of two (satu dari dua / salah satu).
Examples:
| (a) | I have bought two pens. |
| You can have either. | |
| (either tanpa noun) (as a pronoun) | |
| (b) | Either boy is clever. (either with a singular verb) |
| (c) | You can have either one / either pen. (either + singular noun) (as a determiner) |
| You can have either one / either pen. (either + singular noun) (as a determiner) |
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| (d) | You can have either (one) of them. (either of + plural object pronoun) |
| (e) | Either of my parents is/are here. (either of + determiner + plural noun) |
‘either (of)’ is used with the following constructions:
| (1) | either tanpa noun |
| (2) | either + singular noun |
| (3) | either of + plural object pronoun (you, us, them) |
| (4) | either of + determiner + plural noun |
The ‘determiners’ used are:
| (a) | demonstratives: these, those |
| (b) | possessive adjectives: my, his, her, its, your, our, their |
| (c) | article: the |
‘neither’ means not one of the other two things or people
Examples:
| (a) | I have two students. Neither was present. |
| (neither tanpa noun) (sebagai pronoun) | |
| (b) | Neither student/one was present. (neither + singular noun, with a singular verb) (as a determiner) |
| (c) | Neither of my friends is/are here. |
| (neither of + determiner + plural nouns) | |
| (d) | Neither (one) of them was/were present. |
| [neither (one) of + plural object pronoun] |
| (1) | We use 'neither' without a noun with singular verbs, whereas we use 'neither of' with singular verbs or plural verbs. | ||||||||
| (2) | The plural form of the verb with 'neither of' is used mainly in spoken language. ‘neither (of)’ is used with the following constructions: | ||||||||
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| The ‘determiners’ used after neither of are: | |||||||||
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‘either… or’ as a conjunction means one or the other of two and is used to indicate a choice between two or more alternatives.
| (a) | You can give it to me either today or tomorrow. |
| (b) | I put it either in my pocket or on my desk. |
| (c) | We have different flavours/flavors. You can choose either coffee, lemon or chocolate. |
| (d) | Either my sisters or my father is coming. |
| (1) | ‘either… or’ can be used with nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositional phrases, clauses and others as long as the construction is parallel. |
| (2) | You can give it to me either today or tomorrow is the same as You can give it to me today or tomorrow. The use of either… or is more formal. |
‘neither…nor’ as a conjunction means not one nor the other
of two people or things and is used to indicate no choice from two or more alternatives.
| (a) | He has neither a wife nor children. |
| (b) | He likes neither fried chicken nor fried rice. |
| (c) | She neither smokes, drinks nor uses drugs. |
| (d) | Neither his wife nor his children are coming. |
| (1) | ‘neither… nor’ can be used with nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositional phrases, clauses and others as long as the construction is parallel. |
| (2) | She neither smokes, drinks nor uses drugs is the same as She doesn't smoke, drink or use drugs. The use of neither…nor is more formal. |
| (1) | EITHER OF, NEITHER OF, ANY OF, NONE OF | ||||||||||||||
Examples:
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| (1) | 'Either of' and 'neither of' are usually singular in formal written language but plural in spoken language. |
| (2) | 'none of' is usually plural but the singular can also be used. |
| (3) | ‘any of’ is followed by a plural countable or uncountable noun. When followed by a plural countable noun, any of can take both plural and singular verbs. |
| (2) | EITHER… OR and NEITHER… NOR | ||||||||
| ‘Either… or’ is used to express a choice between two alternatives. ‘Neither… nor’ is used to express neither of the two alternatives. | |||||||||
Examples:
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| (a) | ‘either… or’ and 'neither… nor' can be followed by singular or plural verbs depending on which noun is closer to the verb. |
| (b) | For informal use, we can use plural verbs. |
| (1) | 'both' as ​​an adjective is placed in front of a plural noun and has the meaning of the 'two'. | ||||
Examples:
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| (2) | 'both' as ​​a pronoun has the meaning: the two, not only the one but also the other. | |||||||||||
| (2.1) | 'both' replaces and/or emphasizes the noun in front of it | |||||||||||
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Examples:
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| (2.2) | 'both' replaces and/or emphasizes the noun behind it: both (the) books, both these books, both of these books, both of us. |
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Examples:
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| (1) | ‘both… and’ used to say two things are true ‘both… and…’ requires a plural verb because it states more than one thing. |
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Examples:
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| (2) | ‘not only… but also…’, not only… but… as well used to link two phrases or pieces of surprising/unexpected information in which the second piece of information is more surprising or unexpected. |
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Examples:
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| (a) | ‘both… and’ always uses a plural verb. |
| (b) | not only... but also' uses a plural or singular verb depending on the noun closest to the verb. |
| (c) | We can say: Not only did he succeed in music but also in sports. (Inversi: the auxiliary verb 'did' is placed in front of the subject, and the main verb 'succeed' is in the infinitive form without to.) |
| (d) | ‘both…. and’, not only… but also are also used with nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositional phrases, clauses and others as longas teh construction is parallel. |
APPOSITIVE PHRASES
‘Appositive phrases’ are phrases that follow other phrases and refer to the phrases they follow. They are usually written using commas.
Examples:
| (a) | Yogyakarta, the city of students, is in Central Java. |
| (b) | The heart, a sign of love, is everywhere on St. Valentine’s Day. |
| (1) | Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of one of the Continents, was from Britain. |
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| (2) | The young man, a one-sided lover, killed himself. |
| (1) | The new employee, efficient and sincere, made friends easily. |
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| (2) | The boy, conceited and lazy, did not pass the test. |
| (1) | APPOSITIVE PHRASES MODIFIED BY ADJECTIVE CLAUSES | ||||||
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| (2) | APPOSITIVE PHRASES MODIFIED BY PARTICIPIAL PHRASES | ||||||
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| (3) | APPOSITIVE PHRASES MODIFIED BY PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES | ||||||
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| (1) | He won first prize, a fact which makes his family proud. |
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| (2) | The number of people came to his wedding is more than one thousand, an indication that he is a popular person. |
| We can use words like fact, idea, indication, thing as appositives to the whole sentence. | |
| (1) | My friends, as excited as you to go hiking, were here. |
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| (2) | His sister, smarter than expected was wearing a blue dress. |
| (1) | A strict-looking man, the thief got out of the car and walked towards us. |
| (with a noun described by an adjective) | |
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| (2) | A professor, he teaches very well. (with a noun) |
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| (3) | Powerful, the country attacked its enemy. (with an adjective) |
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| (4) | A village with no electricity, it is very peaceful. |
| (with a prepositional phrase). | |
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| (5) | An indication that he is a popular person, the number of people came to his wedding is more than one thousand. |
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| (6) | Prettier than I had thought, his sister was wearing a blue dress. |
Basically, other forms of phrases can also be used in appositive phrases as long as they can replace the noun phrase, such as the infinitive phrase or gerund phrase below:
| (a) | We have a single desire, to change the policy of the school. (with an infinitive phrase) |
| (b) | Changing the policy of the school, it was what we fought for. (with a gerund phrase) |
The ‘appositive phrases’ discussed above are non-restrictive so they are written using commas. The following are restrictive appositive phrases.
| (a) | The story that he was a sorceress has never been proved true. |
| (b) | The fact that he told a lie has to be questioned. |
| (c) | The fact that she is good-looking is no denying. |
| (d) | The plot is to assassin the President. |
| (e) | The reply was that he couldn’t help us. |
| (a) | The ‘appositive phrases’ used in that-clauses are noun clauses. The word 'that' cannot be replaced with which. |
| (b) | 'that-clause' functions as the subject of the clause. |
| (c) | Sentences (d) and (e) are constructed as: subject + be + complement. ‘the plot’ refers to ‘to assassinate the President’, and ‘the reply’ refers to ‘that he couldn’t help us’. |
APPENDIX 1
| (1) | Singular nouns are changed to plural nouns by adding the ending -s (noun + -s). | |
| Examples: | ||
| book → books, dog → dogs, girl → girls, house → houses, song → songs, table → tables | ||
| (2) | verb + -s | |
| Examples: | ||
| jump → jumps, sing → sings, sleep → sleeps | ||
| (3) | If a noun ending in -fe is added with -s, then -fe changes to -ves. | |
| Examples: | ||
| calf → calves, half → halves, knife → knives, leave → leaves, life → lives, loaf → loaves, scarf → scarves, self → selves, shelf → shelves, thief → thieves, wife → wives, wolf → wolves |
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| Beberapa kata tidak mengalami perubahan jika ditambahkan dengan akhiran -s. | ||
| Examples: | ||
| belief → beliefs, chief → chiefs, cliff → cliffs, dwarf → dwarfs, hoof → hoofs, proof → proofs, reef → reefs, roof → roofs | ||
| (4) | Words ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -o, -x, -z if added with the suffix -s, then the suffix -s changes to -es. | |
| Examples of nouns + -s: | ||
| (a) | address → addresses, bus → buses/busses, class → classes, dress → dresses, glass → glasses, kiss → kisses | |
| (b) | brush → brushes, bush → bushes, dish → dishes, fish → fishes | |
| (c) | ditch → ditches, sandwich → sandwiches, witch → witches, branch → branches, church → churches, match → matches | |
| (d) | buffalo → buffaloes, echo → echoes, hero → heroes, mango → mangoes, mosquito → mosquitoes, potato → potatoes, tomato → tomatoes | |
| (e) | box → boxes, fox → foxes, sex → sexes, tax → taxes | |
| (f) | buzz → buzzes, fez → fezzes, quiz → quizzes | |
| (1) | Some words ending in -o, if added with -s, do not change. |
| Examples: | |
| kilo → kilos, memo → memos, photo → photos, piano → pianos, radio → radios, studio → studios, tattoo → tattoos, video → videos, zoo → zoos | |
| (2) | Some words that end in -o, if added with -s, the ending can change to -es or remain unchanged. |
| Examples: | |
| mosquitos/mosquitoes, tornados/tornadoes, volcanos/volcanoes, zeros/zeroes | |
| (3) | If the ending -ch is spelled ‘k’, we just add the ending -s. |
| Examples: | |
| stomach → stomachs, epoch → epochs |
| Examples of verbs + -s: | |
| (a) | the suffix -s: |
| guess → guesses, miss → misses, pass → passes, possess → possesses, press → presses | |
| (b) | the suffix -sh: |
| blush → blushes, finish → finishes, flash → flashes, wash → washes, wish → wishes | |
| (c) | the suffic -ch: |
| catch → catches, itch → itches, search → searches, sketch → sketches, touch → touches, scratch → scratches, stitch → stitches, teach → teaches, watch → watches | |
| (d) | the suffix -o: |
| box → boxes, do → does, go → goes | |
| (e) | the suffix -z: |
| buzz → buzzes, quiz → quizzes | |
| (f) | the suffix -x: |
| fix → fixes, mix → mixes, relax → relaxes | |
| (1) | For words ending in -y that are preceded by a consonant, if -s is added, then -y changes to -ies. | |
| (a) | Examples of nouns (ending in a consonant + -y) + -s | |
| army → armies, baby → babies, butterfly → butterflies, city → cities, country → countries, dormitory → dormitories, enemy → enemies, family → families, ferry → ferries, library → libraries, lorry → lorries, secretary → secretaries, possibility → possibilities, story → stories | ||
| (b) | Example of verbs (ending in a consonant + -y) + -s | |
| apply → applies, carry → carries, cry → cries, pry → pries, try → tries, study → studies | ||
| (2) | For words ending in -y that are preceded by a vowel, if -s is added, the -y does not change. | |
| (a) | Example of nouns (ending in a vowel + -y) + -s | |
| attorney → attorneys, boy → boys, donkey → donkeys, holiday → holidays, key → keys, monkey → monkeys, toy → toys, valley → valleys, way → ways | ||
| (b) | Examples of verb (ending in a vowel + -y) + s | |
| buy → buys, enjoy → enjoys, pay → pays, play → plays, pray → prays, say → says, stay → stays | ||
| (3) | Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant, if -ed is added, change to -ied, and if -s is added, change to -ies. | |
| Examples: | ||
| apply → applied, copy → copied, hurry → hurried, marry → married, study → studied, try → tried | ||
| apply → applies, copy → copies, hurry → hurries, marry → marries, study → studies, try → tries | ||
| (a) | Verbs consisting of three letters, where the ending -y is preceded by a vowel, change as below: | |
| Examples: lay-laid, pay-paid, say-said | ||
| (b) | For names written in capital letters (proper names) that end in a consonant + -y, the plural ending is -ys. | |
| Examples: Kennedys, Freddys, Februarys | ||
| (4) | Adjectives ending in -y when added with -er, -est, and -ly change to -ier, -iest, and change to -ily if -y is preceded by a consonant. | |
| Examples: | ||
| easy → easier → easiest, pretty → prettier → prettiest | ||
| customary → customarily, easy → easily, temporary → temporarily | ||
| (5) | Words ending in -y do not change if the ending -ing is added. | |
| Examples: | ||
| apply → applying, hurry → hurrying, study → studying | ||
| (1) | Verbs ending in -ie change to -y if we add the ending -ing. |
| Examples: | |
| die → dying, lie → lying, tie → tying | |
| (2) | The ‘-e’ is omitted if the verb ending in -e is added with the ending -ing. |
| Examples: | |
| argue → arguing, believe → believing, come → coming, dance → dancing, hope → hoping, make → making, smile → smiling, write → writing | |
| Jika kata kerja berakhiran -ee, maka -ee tidak dihilangkan. | |
| Examples: agree → agreeing, see → seeing |
| (1) | ‘-d’ is added to verbs ending in -e to form the past form. |
| Examples: | |
| argue → argued, believe → believed, dance → danced, hope → hoped, smile → smiled | |
| (2) | ‘-r’, -st is added to adjectives ending in -e. |
| Examples: | |
| large → larger → largest, late → later → latest, wide → wider → widest | |
| (3) | If an adjective ending in -e is made into an adverb by adding -ly, then the -e is not removed. |
| Examples: | |
| absolute → absolutely, definite → definitely, extreme → extremely, wide → widely | |
| (4) | If an adjective ending in -le is made into an adverb by adding -ly, then -le changes to -ly. |
| Examples: | |
| gentle → gently, humble → humbly, responsible → responsibly, simple → simply |
| (1) | For words ending with a vowel + a consonant, the consonant is written double. |
| Examples: | |
| big → bigger, hit → hitting, stop → stopped, swim → swimming, thin → thinner | |
| (2) | For words ending in consonant + consonant, the consonant is not doubled. |
| Examples: | |
| rich → richer, start → starting, work → worked | |
| (3) | For words ending with vowel + vowel + consonant, the consonant is not written double. |
| Examples: | |
| cheap → cheaper, deep → deepest, eat → eating, need → needing → needed, read → reading, sleep → sleeping, wait → waiting → waited | |
| (4) | For words consisting of more than one syllable, if the word is stressed at the end of the syllable, then the consonant doubled. |
| Examples: | |
| be|gin → be|ginning, pre|fer → pre|ferring →pre|ferred, re|gret → re|gretting → re|gretted | |
| (5) | For words consisting of more than one syllable, if the word dis not stressed at the end of the syllable, then the consonant is not doubled. |
| Examples: | |
| happen → happening → happened, remember → remembering → remembered, visit → visiting → visited | |
| (6) | For words ending in -w and -y, we do not double them in writing. |
| Examples: | |
| stay → staying, know → knowing, slow → slower |
In British English words that end with the letter -l, the letter -l is doubled if it is added with the suffixes -ing and -ed but not in American English.
Examples:
| cancel → cancelled → cancelling, travel → travelled → travelling (British) |
| cancel → canceled → canceling, travel → traveled → traveling (American) |
APPENDIX 3
| (1) | Numbers (0-99) | ||||||||||
| Numbers consisting of two digits are written using a hyphen. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 35 | = | thirty-five, 42 = forty-two | ||||||||
| (b) | ke-31 | = | the thirty-first (31st) | ||||||||
| (c) | ke-42 | = | the forty-second (42nd) | ||||||||
| (d) | ke-57 | = | the fifty-seventh (57th) | ||||||||
| (2) | Numbers (100-999) | ||||||||||
| Pay attention to the procedure for writing 'hundred': | |||||||||||
| (a) | 100 | = | one hundred | ||||||||
| (b) | 225 | = | two hundred and twenty-five | ||||||||
| (c) | 347 | = | three hundred and forty-seven | ||||||||
| Pay attention to how to pronounce the numbers 100-199: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 105 | = | one hundred and five or a hundred and five | ||||||||
| (b) | 187 | = | one hundred and eighty-seven or a hundred and eighty-seven | ||||||||
| In British English we always use 'and' to say the tens, whereas in American English ‘and’ may not be used. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| 234 | = | two hundred and thirty-four (British) | |||||||||
| two hundred (and) thirty-four (American) | |||||||||||
| (3) | Numbers (1,001-9,999) | ||||||||||
| Pay attention to the procedure for writing 'thousand'. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 1,000 | = | one thousand | ||||||||
| (b) | 1,400 | = | one thousand and four hundred atau fourteen hundred | ||||||||
| (c) | 1,532 | = | one thousand five hundred and thirty-two | ||||||||
| (d) | 1,054 | = | one thousand and fifty-four | ||||||||
| [If there are no hundreds (1,000-1,099), we can say a thousand and fifty-four] | |||||||||||
| (e) | 5,100 | = | five thousand, one hundred (tidak menggunakan and jika tidak ada puluhan) | ||||||||
| For numbers 1,100-1,999, we better start with one thousand. | |||||||||||
| Examples: 1,562 = one thousand five hundred and sixty-two instead of a thousand five hundred and sixty-two. | |||||||||||
| In British English we can use a space instead of a comma: | |||||||||||
| 1,000 or 1 000. | |||||||||||
| (4) | Numbers (10,001- 999,999) | ||||||||||
| Writing tens of thousands of numbers uses a comma after the thousands or a space after the thousands (British English). | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 10,000 atau 10 000 | = | ten thousand | ||||||||
| (b) | 37,652 atau 37 652 | = | thirty-seven thousand, six hundred and fifty-two | ||||||||
| (c) | 45,701 atau 45 701 | = | forty-five thousand, seven hundred and one | ||||||||
| (5) | Numbers over a Million | ||||||||||
| Writing the number million uses the same method. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 3,426,840 atau 3 426 840 | = | three million, four hundred twenty-six thousand, eight hundred and forty | ||||||||
| (b) | 4,246,712 atau 4 246 712 | = | four million, two hundred forty-six thousand, seven hundred and twelve | ||||||||
| (c) | 45,701 atau 45 701 | = | forty-five thousand, seven hundred and one | ||||||||
| (6) | Telephone, Credit Card, Bank Account Numbers | ||||||||||
| Writing numbers that do not contain values ​​such as telephone numbers, bank accounts, credit cards and others are grouped into two, three, four or five digits to make it easier for us to remember them. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | My credit card number is 8788 0085 3421 2570 | ||||||||||
| (b) | My bank account number is 656 789 3429 | ||||||||||
| (c) | My telephone number is 943 252 312 | ||||||||||
| In American English the last four digits of a telephone number can be pronounced with two sets of tens. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| 541 2519 | = | five four one, twenty-five nineteen | |||||||||
| If the last number ends in hundreds or thousands, we can use hundred or thousand. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| 541 600 | = | five four one, six hundred | |||||||||
| 541 9000 | = | five four one, nine thousand | |||||||||
| (7) | Zero (angka nol) | ||||||||||
| The number zero (0) is pronounced as zero /ziJrJU/. In informal English, we can also pronounce nought, nothing or o /JU/. When stating a telephone number or bank account number, we can pronounce the number zero with the letter o /JU/. | |||||||||||
| (8) | Fractions (pecahan) | ||||||||||
| We say a third, a quarter and a half for 1/3, 1/4 and 1/2 respectively. ‘one’ can also replace 'a' for emphasis. | |||||||||||
| Some examples of fractions: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 1/7 | = | a seventh/one seventh | ||||||||
| (b) | 2/9 | = | two ninths | ||||||||
| (c) | 3/10 | = | three tenths | ||||||||
| (d) | 2/3 | = | two thirds | ||||||||
| (e) | 3/4 | = | three quarters | ||||||||
| (f) | 41/4 | = | four and a quarter | ||||||||
| (g) | 35/14 | = | three and five fourteenths | ||||||||
| For fractions with larger values ​​we say the following: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 9/255 | = | nine over two five five | ||||||||
| (b) | 33/241 | = | thirty-three over two four one | ||||||||
| (c) | 17/24 | = | seventeen over twenty-four | ||||||||
| (9) | Decimals (desimal) | ||||||||||
| English uses a dot (point) to represent a decimal. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | 27.65 | = | twenty-seven point six five | ||||||||
| (b) | 2.143 | = | two point one four three | ||||||||
| (c) | 0.161 | = | zero point one six one (Dalam British English kita dapat mengatakan nought point one six one) (Kita tidak mengatakan zero/nought point one hundred and sixty one) | ||||||||
| (10) | Percentages (%) | ||||||||||
| %’ can be written with or without spaces to become per cent or percent. | |||||||||||
| (a) | 25% | = | twenty-five percent/per cent | ||||||||
| (b) | 35% | = | thirty-five percent/per cent | ||||||||
| (11) | Amount of Money | ||||||||||
| Writing the amount of money in pence and cents using numbers. | |||||||||||
| Examples: | |||||||||||
| (a) | forty-one pounds (and) 30 pence | ||||||||||
| (b) | thirty-four dollars (and) 35 cents | ||||||||||
| ‘pence’ is the plural form of penny. Use 'pence' to express an amount of money. ‘pennies’ is also the plural form of penny meaning 'a number of coins of one penny or one cent'. | |||||||||||
